Mastering Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
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Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
Do women or men more often have multiple sclerosis? - ansWomen (2-3:1)
Which disease has the following risk factors:
-Epstein-barr virus (EBV)
-Live above the 37th parallel
-Caucasian
-Female
-Vitamin D deficiency: Decreased time between clinical isolated syndrome (CIS) and 2nd
exacerbation
-Smoking - ansMultiple Sclerosis
What is the main pathophysiological theory for multiple sclerosis? - ansIt's an
autoimmune/neurodegenerative disease:
-inflammation
-demyelination/remyelination
-permanent axonal damage
What are the Myelin forming cells of the CNS? - ansOligodendrocytes
What do T-Helper cell types 1 & 17 do? - ansPro-inflammatory
What does T-Helper cell type 2 do? - ansAnti-inflammatory
What is the pathophysiology of Multple Sclerosis? - ans1. Autoreactive T cells express Very
Late Antegen-4 (VLA-4, aka α4-integrin) on their cell surface and secrete Matrix
Metalloproteinases (MMP).
2. VLA-4 binds to Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule (VCAM) receptors on the blood brain
barrier (BBB) and MMP results in dysregulation of the BBB, allowing cell entry into the
CNS.
3. Once in the CNS, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, and Osteopontin [OP]) are
secreted resulting in inflammation and further T cell entry into the CNS.
4. T cells in the CNS interact with microglia, astrocytes, and macrophages to produce
reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide causing CNS damage.
5. B cells acts as ACPs, enter the CNS, and produce myelin-specific antibodies that form
membrane attack complexes with complement causing cell lysis.
Which disease presents in the following way:
**Visual changes, optic neuritis (Often the 1st sign/symptom)
-Paresthesias
-Gait issues/falls
-Foot drop
-Dysdiadochokinesia
-Fatigue
-Weakness
-Impaired coordination
-Cognitive changes
,Mastering Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
Verified and Certified by Expert.
Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
MRI:
***Gadolinium enhanced lesions
LUMBAR PUNCTURE TEST:
-Increased IgG
-Increased Myelin basic protein (MBP)
-Increased CSF protein - ansMultiple Sclerosis
Which cognitive test is most commonly used to diagnose MS? - ansSymbol Digit Modalities
Test (SDMT)
What is the primary diagnostic test for MS? - ansMRI with or without contrast
What is the most common type of MS, which is involves episodes of acute worsening with
some recovery and no progression in between exacerbations? - ansRelapsing Remitting MS
(RRMS)
What type of MS can develop from RRMS, have a steady progression of the disease in
between exacerbations, and present with more black holes and brain atrophy? - ansSecondary
Progressive MS (SPMS)
What type of MS is the least common, it doesn't develop from RRMS and is the progressive
worsening of the disease from the start, lacking recovery times? - ansPrimary Progressive MS
(PPMS)
What is the prognosis (good or bad) for someone with MS who is:
- under 40 years old
-Female
-First sign/symptom is optic neuritis/sensory issues
-Low exacerbation frequency
-RRMS
-Single lesion - ansGood prognosis
What is the prognosis (good or bad) for someone with MS who is:
- over 40 years old
-Male
-First sign/symptom is motor or cerebellar
-Multiple lesion locations
-PPMS - ansBad prognosis
What are the treatment goals for treating MS? - ans-Decrease attack/exacerbation rate
-Decrease annualized relapse rate (ARR)
-Slow progression of disease
-Prevent/limit ADRs
-Symptom management (fatigue, bladder dysfunction, cognitive dysfunction, constipation,
depression)
When monitoring MS patients should follow-up with their neurologists every _________.
Get an MRI every ___________. - ansWhen monitoring MS patients should follow-up with
their neurologists every 6 months-1 year. Get an MRI every 1 year (based on need).
What is the difference between seizure and epilepsy? - ansSeizure: a discrete clinical event
that results in the abnormal synchronous discharge of a set of neurons in the brain.
,Mastering Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
Verified and Certified by Expert.
Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
Epilepsy: at least 2 unprovoked seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart.
What is Status Epilepticus? - ansFailure of the termination mechanisms for seizure leading to
abnormally prolonged seizures. Length of seizure beyond 5 minutes and duration beyond the
risk of long-term consequence (30 minutes).
Which part of the brain is responsible for visual memory, organizing sensory information,
emotional responses? - ansTemporal lobe
Which lobe of the brain is responsible for sensations (touch, feeling pain, spacial
representation)? - ansParietal lobe
Which part of the brain is responsible for planning, abstract thinking, organizing, reward
system, pleasure? - ansFrontal Lobe
Which part of the brain is responsible for vision? - ansOccipital lobe
Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary movement (face, neck, trunk, upper/lower
extremities)? - ansMotor Cortex
Which part of the brain is responsible for sensations of tingling, numbness, touch, smell of
burnt rubber, parasthesisas? - ansSomatosensory Cortex
Which part of the brain is responsible for speech? and which part is responsible for speech
terms of the formation of thoughts and word? - ansBroca's: speech
Wernicke's: formation of thought/words
Which part of the brain is responsible for hearing? - ansAuditory Cortex
Which part of the brain is responsible for sensory information processing, perceptual
disturbances? - ansAssociation Cortex
When does Epilepsy most often present in patients? - ansMost often in infancy and childhood
What are the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) Epilepsy etiologies? - ans1.
Genetic
2. Structural
3. Infectious
4. Metabolic
5. Immune
6. Unknown
What is the pathophysiology of Seizures? - ans1. Excessive excitation of cortical neurons
(hyperexcitable/hypersynchronization)
-Abnormal functioning of Na/K pump, ligand-activated channels, voltage-gated channels.
-Abnormal ATPase functioning
-Abnormal synaptic vesicle protein 2-A
-Changes in receptors, second messaging systems
2. Disorder inhibition of cortical neurons
3. Transitory imbalance in neurotransmitters
-Enhanced excitatory neurotransmission (Glutamate/Aspartate, and NMDA/AMPA
receptors)
What are some seizure recurrence risk factors? - ans-Abnormal EEG
-Seizure occurs during sleep
-Family history
, Mastering Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
Verified and Certified by Expert.
Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
-Prior acute seizure
-Mental retardation or cerebral palsy
*NOT seizure type
*NOT seizure length
*NOT age of onset
What type of seizure involves one hemisphere of the brain and may be with or without
dyscognitive features. - ansFocal Seizures
What type of seizure involves the loss of consciousness for 5-20 seconds but the patient does
not lose postural control? - ansAbsence Seizure
What type of seizure involves bilateral muscle jerks and twitching? - ansMyoclonic Seizure
What type of seizure involves continuous shaking? - ansClonic Seizure
What type of seizure involves stiffness (with gasp, wheeze, yelp)? - ansTonic Seizure
What type of seizure involves going from stiff to shaking, stiff to shaking? - ansTonic-Clonic
Seizure
What type of seizure involves no movement, and the patient just falls? - ansAtonic Seizure
If the seizure patient has dejavu what part of the brain is involved? - ansParietal or Temporal
lobe
If the seizure patient has sweating, salivating, pale skin, lip smack what part of the brain is
involved? - ansAutonomic area
What type of seizure is caused by fever? - ansFebrile Seizure
What time frame is the best to get an EEG for a seizure patient? - ansWithin 4 hours of
seizure
When does Parkinson's onset usually occur? - ansOver the age of 60
Do more men or women get Parkinson's? - ansMen
What are some of the etiology/Risk factors of Parkinson's Disease? - ans-Idiopathic
-Genetic predisposition
-Environmental
-Family History
-Drug Induced Parkinsonism (DIP)
What disease presents in the following way?
-Tremor (slow, rhythmic, methodical, occurs at rest, initially unilateral, disappears with
intention/sleep)
-Rigidity (cogwheeling)
-Bradykinesia
-Postural Instability
-Shuffling gait
-Small hand-writing
-Smelling loss - ansParkinson's Disease
What is the pathophysiology of Parkinson's Disease? - ans-Injury to the dopaminergic
pathway (Nirostriatial pathway: Substantia nigra to striatum)
-Dopamine activity decreases (Dopamine inhibits the activity of acetylcholine)
-Aceytlcholine activity increases
-Nigral neurons cell death
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
Verified and Certified by Expert.
Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
Do women or men more often have multiple sclerosis? - ansWomen (2-3:1)
Which disease has the following risk factors:
-Epstein-barr virus (EBV)
-Live above the 37th parallel
-Caucasian
-Female
-Vitamin D deficiency: Decreased time between clinical isolated syndrome (CIS) and 2nd
exacerbation
-Smoking - ansMultiple Sclerosis
What is the main pathophysiological theory for multiple sclerosis? - ansIt's an
autoimmune/neurodegenerative disease:
-inflammation
-demyelination/remyelination
-permanent axonal damage
What are the Myelin forming cells of the CNS? - ansOligodendrocytes
What do T-Helper cell types 1 & 17 do? - ansPro-inflammatory
What does T-Helper cell type 2 do? - ansAnti-inflammatory
What is the pathophysiology of Multple Sclerosis? - ans1. Autoreactive T cells express Very
Late Antegen-4 (VLA-4, aka α4-integrin) on their cell surface and secrete Matrix
Metalloproteinases (MMP).
2. VLA-4 binds to Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule (VCAM) receptors on the blood brain
barrier (BBB) and MMP results in dysregulation of the BBB, allowing cell entry into the
CNS.
3. Once in the CNS, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, and Osteopontin [OP]) are
secreted resulting in inflammation and further T cell entry into the CNS.
4. T cells in the CNS interact with microglia, astrocytes, and macrophages to produce
reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide causing CNS damage.
5. B cells acts as ACPs, enter the CNS, and produce myelin-specific antibodies that form
membrane attack complexes with complement causing cell lysis.
Which disease presents in the following way:
**Visual changes, optic neuritis (Often the 1st sign/symptom)
-Paresthesias
-Gait issues/falls
-Foot drop
-Dysdiadochokinesia
-Fatigue
-Weakness
-Impaired coordination
-Cognitive changes
,Mastering Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
Verified and Certified by Expert.
Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
MRI:
***Gadolinium enhanced lesions
LUMBAR PUNCTURE TEST:
-Increased IgG
-Increased Myelin basic protein (MBP)
-Increased CSF protein - ansMultiple Sclerosis
Which cognitive test is most commonly used to diagnose MS? - ansSymbol Digit Modalities
Test (SDMT)
What is the primary diagnostic test for MS? - ansMRI with or without contrast
What is the most common type of MS, which is involves episodes of acute worsening with
some recovery and no progression in between exacerbations? - ansRelapsing Remitting MS
(RRMS)
What type of MS can develop from RRMS, have a steady progression of the disease in
between exacerbations, and present with more black holes and brain atrophy? - ansSecondary
Progressive MS (SPMS)
What type of MS is the least common, it doesn't develop from RRMS and is the progressive
worsening of the disease from the start, lacking recovery times? - ansPrimary Progressive MS
(PPMS)
What is the prognosis (good or bad) for someone with MS who is:
- under 40 years old
-Female
-First sign/symptom is optic neuritis/sensory issues
-Low exacerbation frequency
-RRMS
-Single lesion - ansGood prognosis
What is the prognosis (good or bad) for someone with MS who is:
- over 40 years old
-Male
-First sign/symptom is motor or cerebellar
-Multiple lesion locations
-PPMS - ansBad prognosis
What are the treatment goals for treating MS? - ans-Decrease attack/exacerbation rate
-Decrease annualized relapse rate (ARR)
-Slow progression of disease
-Prevent/limit ADRs
-Symptom management (fatigue, bladder dysfunction, cognitive dysfunction, constipation,
depression)
When monitoring MS patients should follow-up with their neurologists every _________.
Get an MRI every ___________. - ansWhen monitoring MS patients should follow-up with
their neurologists every 6 months-1 year. Get an MRI every 1 year (based on need).
What is the difference between seizure and epilepsy? - ansSeizure: a discrete clinical event
that results in the abnormal synchronous discharge of a set of neurons in the brain.
,Mastering Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
Verified and Certified by Expert.
Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
Epilepsy: at least 2 unprovoked seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart.
What is Status Epilepticus? - ansFailure of the termination mechanisms for seizure leading to
abnormally prolonged seizures. Length of seizure beyond 5 minutes and duration beyond the
risk of long-term consequence (30 minutes).
Which part of the brain is responsible for visual memory, organizing sensory information,
emotional responses? - ansTemporal lobe
Which lobe of the brain is responsible for sensations (touch, feeling pain, spacial
representation)? - ansParietal lobe
Which part of the brain is responsible for planning, abstract thinking, organizing, reward
system, pleasure? - ansFrontal Lobe
Which part of the brain is responsible for vision? - ansOccipital lobe
Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary movement (face, neck, trunk, upper/lower
extremities)? - ansMotor Cortex
Which part of the brain is responsible for sensations of tingling, numbness, touch, smell of
burnt rubber, parasthesisas? - ansSomatosensory Cortex
Which part of the brain is responsible for speech? and which part is responsible for speech
terms of the formation of thoughts and word? - ansBroca's: speech
Wernicke's: formation of thought/words
Which part of the brain is responsible for hearing? - ansAuditory Cortex
Which part of the brain is responsible for sensory information processing, perceptual
disturbances? - ansAssociation Cortex
When does Epilepsy most often present in patients? - ansMost often in infancy and childhood
What are the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) Epilepsy etiologies? - ans1.
Genetic
2. Structural
3. Infectious
4. Metabolic
5. Immune
6. Unknown
What is the pathophysiology of Seizures? - ans1. Excessive excitation of cortical neurons
(hyperexcitable/hypersynchronization)
-Abnormal functioning of Na/K pump, ligand-activated channels, voltage-gated channels.
-Abnormal ATPase functioning
-Abnormal synaptic vesicle protein 2-A
-Changes in receptors, second messaging systems
2. Disorder inhibition of cortical neurons
3. Transitory imbalance in neurotransmitters
-Enhanced excitatory neurotransmission (Glutamate/Aspartate, and NMDA/AMPA
receptors)
What are some seizure recurrence risk factors? - ans-Abnormal EEG
-Seizure occurs during sleep
-Family history
, Mastering Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam
Insights.
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide 100%
Verified and Certified by Expert.
Latest Updated Guide 2025/2026
-Prior acute seizure
-Mental retardation or cerebral palsy
*NOT seizure type
*NOT seizure length
*NOT age of onset
What type of seizure involves one hemisphere of the brain and may be with or without
dyscognitive features. - ansFocal Seizures
What type of seizure involves the loss of consciousness for 5-20 seconds but the patient does
not lose postural control? - ansAbsence Seizure
What type of seizure involves bilateral muscle jerks and twitching? - ansMyoclonic Seizure
What type of seizure involves continuous shaking? - ansClonic Seizure
What type of seizure involves stiffness (with gasp, wheeze, yelp)? - ansTonic Seizure
What type of seizure involves going from stiff to shaking, stiff to shaking? - ansTonic-Clonic
Seizure
What type of seizure involves no movement, and the patient just falls? - ansAtonic Seizure
If the seizure patient has dejavu what part of the brain is involved? - ansParietal or Temporal
lobe
If the seizure patient has sweating, salivating, pale skin, lip smack what part of the brain is
involved? - ansAutonomic area
What type of seizure is caused by fever? - ansFebrile Seizure
What time frame is the best to get an EEG for a seizure patient? - ansWithin 4 hours of
seizure
When does Parkinson's onset usually occur? - ansOver the age of 60
Do more men or women get Parkinson's? - ansMen
What are some of the etiology/Risk factors of Parkinson's Disease? - ans-Idiopathic
-Genetic predisposition
-Environmental
-Family History
-Drug Induced Parkinsonism (DIP)
What disease presents in the following way?
-Tremor (slow, rhythmic, methodical, occurs at rest, initially unilateral, disappears with
intention/sleep)
-Rigidity (cogwheeling)
-Bradykinesia
-Postural Instability
-Shuffling gait
-Small hand-writing
-Smelling loss - ansParkinson's Disease
What is the pathophysiology of Parkinson's Disease? - ans-Injury to the dopaminergic
pathway (Nirostriatial pathway: Substantia nigra to striatum)
-Dopamine activity decreases (Dopamine inhibits the activity of acetylcholine)
-Aceytlcholine activity increases
-Nigral neurons cell death
