zChapter 1: Human Body
Anatomy: study of the human body, greek term to cut apart
Morphology: the science of form
Physiology: the study of body function
Gross anatomy:
- Large
- Study of body structures that can be examined by the naked eye
- Bones, muscles
- Dissection: connective tissue is removed from between the body organs so that the organs
can be seen more clearly
- Regional anatomy: all structures in a single body region are examined as a group
- Systemic: all the organs with related functions are studded (musclular system, all
muscles)
- Surface anatomy: shapes and markings on the surface of the body that reveal the
underlying organs, used to find out muscles that bulge under the skin, pulses, drawing
blood
Microscopic anatomy:
- Histology: tissue study
- Need a microscope
- Cells, tissues
Developmental:
- Structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life, aging
Embryology:
- How the body develops before birth
- Explains defects
Pathological:
- Structural changes in cells, tissues, and organs by disease
Radiographic:
- Internal body through e ray and other techniques
Functional morphology:
- Functional and efficient
Organization:
- Chemical level: atoms are tiny buildings of matter (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen)
- Atoms make molecules and larger macromolecules
- Macromolecules; carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, building blocks at the cellular
level
1. Cellular level: cells and their functional subunits, called cellular organelles
- metabolic functions of the cells as an energy source
- signaling molecules
, - catalysts
2. Tissue level:
- Group of cells and extracellular material that work together to do a common
function
- 4 types
a) Epithelial: covers the body surface and cavities
b) Connective: supports the body and protects organs
c) Muscle movement
d) Nervous: internal communication that transmit electrical impulses
3. Organ level:
- Discrete structure made up of more than one tissue
- Liver, brain, femur, heart
- Functional center for an activity that no other organ can do
4. Organ system level:
- Organs that work together to make a common purpose
- All organs of the cv system transport blood
a) Integumentary: skin
b) Skeletal
c) Muscular
d) Respiratory
e) Digestive
f) Urinary
g) Reproductive
h) Nervous
i) Endocrine
j) Immunity
5. Organismal level:
- Whole living person
Anatomical terminology:
- Greek or latin
Human body plan:
1. Tube within a tube body plan: inner tube extends from mouth to anus
- Includes respiratory and digestive organs
- Outer tube is axial skeleton and muscles that make outer wall and nervous
structures
2. Bilateral symmetry: left half of the body is essentially a mirror image of right
- Paits
- In the median plan are not paired
3. Dorsal hollow nerve cord: all vertebrate embryos have a hollow nerve cord running along
their back in median plane
, - Brain and spine
4. Notochord and vertebrae: back string is a stiff rod in the back
- Humans have a complete notochord in embryo and replaced by the vertebrae
- Some pieces are still there always
5. Segentation: outer tube of the body
- Segment structures from head to the trunk
- Ribs and muscles between ribs show regmentation
- Many nerves branching off the spinal cord
- Bony vertebral column with its repairing vertebrate
6. Pharyngeal pouches: pharynx is the throat
- Human pharynx has a set of outpocketings called pharyngeal pouches in embryo
- Like gills of fish
Body cavities and membranes:
1. Dorsal:
- Subdivided to cranial: skull and brain
- Vertebral: enclose spinal cord
2. Ventral:
- Anterior and larger closed body
- Lungs, heart, intestives, kidneys
- Called visceral organs or viscera
- Superior thoracic cavity: surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest call
a) Two lateral parts: lung surrounded by a pleural cavity: space between the
parietal and visceral layers of the pleura which has little serous fluid
b) Central band or organs called mediastinum which contains the heart
surrounded by a pericardial cavity: space between the parietal and
visceral layers of the pericardium which has little serous fluid
- Inferior abdominopelvic: abdominal walls and pelvic girdle
a) Superior part: abdominal cavity: liver, stomach, kidneys
b) Inferior: pelvic cavity: banner, organs, rectum
- Both are continuous of each other and are not separated
- Peritoneal cavity: surrounded by this
- Separated by the diaphragm
3 Serous:
- Slitlike space lined by a serous membrane or serosa
- Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
- Outer wall of the cavity is called parietal serosa which is continuous with the visceral
serosa (inside)
- Serous fluid: produced by both serous membranes, slippery and allows visceral organs to
slide with little friction across the cavity walls
, Light and electron microscopy:
- Microscopy: small structures seen with microscope
a) Light: illuminates body tissue with a beam of light
- Used for lower magnification
- Sharp, detailed images of tissues and cells but not of the small structures
within cells
- Low resolution
b) Transmission electron: uses a beam of electrons
- Sharp images with more magnification
- Fine details
- Specimen must be fixed: preserved
- Must be cut into sections thin though to transmit light or elections
- Must be stained to enhance contrast: may consist of positive or negative molecules of
bye that bind within the tissue to macromplecules of the opposite charge
- most common is a combination of two dyes
1. Hematoxylin: basic, brings to acidic, dark blue, purple
2. Eosin: acidic to basic, red and pink
a) Acidic stainsL negative dyes with positive structures
b) Basic stains: opposite
Scanning electron microscopy:
- Three dimensional pictures of whole, unsectioned surfaces with very clear pictures
- Preserved and coated with fine layers of carbon and gold dust
- Electron beam scans the specimen making secondary electrons to be emitted from surface
- Detector saptures these electrons and makes them into a 3d image
- SEM is accurate and looks very real
- Black and white but can be coloured
Artifacts:
- Preserved tissue seen under the microscope has been exposed to many procedures that
alter its original condition
- Minor distortions called artifacts, most microscopic structures viewed by anatomists are
not exactly like those living tissue
Clinical anatomy:
1. X ray:
- 1895 by accident
- Electromagnetic waves of very short wavelengths
- Some rays are absorbed depending on the density of the matter
- Rays that pass through the body expose a piece of film behind the patient making
the image
- Image is a negative (darker areas are soft organs and lighter are bones)
- Mammography: uses low bose x rays of the lower back and hip for osteoporosis
Anatomy: study of the human body, greek term to cut apart
Morphology: the science of form
Physiology: the study of body function
Gross anatomy:
- Large
- Study of body structures that can be examined by the naked eye
- Bones, muscles
- Dissection: connective tissue is removed from between the body organs so that the organs
can be seen more clearly
- Regional anatomy: all structures in a single body region are examined as a group
- Systemic: all the organs with related functions are studded (musclular system, all
muscles)
- Surface anatomy: shapes and markings on the surface of the body that reveal the
underlying organs, used to find out muscles that bulge under the skin, pulses, drawing
blood
Microscopic anatomy:
- Histology: tissue study
- Need a microscope
- Cells, tissues
Developmental:
- Structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life, aging
Embryology:
- How the body develops before birth
- Explains defects
Pathological:
- Structural changes in cells, tissues, and organs by disease
Radiographic:
- Internal body through e ray and other techniques
Functional morphology:
- Functional and efficient
Organization:
- Chemical level: atoms are tiny buildings of matter (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen)
- Atoms make molecules and larger macromolecules
- Macromolecules; carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, building blocks at the cellular
level
1. Cellular level: cells and their functional subunits, called cellular organelles
- metabolic functions of the cells as an energy source
- signaling molecules
, - catalysts
2. Tissue level:
- Group of cells and extracellular material that work together to do a common
function
- 4 types
a) Epithelial: covers the body surface and cavities
b) Connective: supports the body and protects organs
c) Muscle movement
d) Nervous: internal communication that transmit electrical impulses
3. Organ level:
- Discrete structure made up of more than one tissue
- Liver, brain, femur, heart
- Functional center for an activity that no other organ can do
4. Organ system level:
- Organs that work together to make a common purpose
- All organs of the cv system transport blood
a) Integumentary: skin
b) Skeletal
c) Muscular
d) Respiratory
e) Digestive
f) Urinary
g) Reproductive
h) Nervous
i) Endocrine
j) Immunity
5. Organismal level:
- Whole living person
Anatomical terminology:
- Greek or latin
Human body plan:
1. Tube within a tube body plan: inner tube extends from mouth to anus
- Includes respiratory and digestive organs
- Outer tube is axial skeleton and muscles that make outer wall and nervous
structures
2. Bilateral symmetry: left half of the body is essentially a mirror image of right
- Paits
- In the median plan are not paired
3. Dorsal hollow nerve cord: all vertebrate embryos have a hollow nerve cord running along
their back in median plane
, - Brain and spine
4. Notochord and vertebrae: back string is a stiff rod in the back
- Humans have a complete notochord in embryo and replaced by the vertebrae
- Some pieces are still there always
5. Segentation: outer tube of the body
- Segment structures from head to the trunk
- Ribs and muscles between ribs show regmentation
- Many nerves branching off the spinal cord
- Bony vertebral column with its repairing vertebrate
6. Pharyngeal pouches: pharynx is the throat
- Human pharynx has a set of outpocketings called pharyngeal pouches in embryo
- Like gills of fish
Body cavities and membranes:
1. Dorsal:
- Subdivided to cranial: skull and brain
- Vertebral: enclose spinal cord
2. Ventral:
- Anterior and larger closed body
- Lungs, heart, intestives, kidneys
- Called visceral organs or viscera
- Superior thoracic cavity: surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest call
a) Two lateral parts: lung surrounded by a pleural cavity: space between the
parietal and visceral layers of the pleura which has little serous fluid
b) Central band or organs called mediastinum which contains the heart
surrounded by a pericardial cavity: space between the parietal and
visceral layers of the pericardium which has little serous fluid
- Inferior abdominopelvic: abdominal walls and pelvic girdle
a) Superior part: abdominal cavity: liver, stomach, kidneys
b) Inferior: pelvic cavity: banner, organs, rectum
- Both are continuous of each other and are not separated
- Peritoneal cavity: surrounded by this
- Separated by the diaphragm
3 Serous:
- Slitlike space lined by a serous membrane or serosa
- Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
- Outer wall of the cavity is called parietal serosa which is continuous with the visceral
serosa (inside)
- Serous fluid: produced by both serous membranes, slippery and allows visceral organs to
slide with little friction across the cavity walls
, Light and electron microscopy:
- Microscopy: small structures seen with microscope
a) Light: illuminates body tissue with a beam of light
- Used for lower magnification
- Sharp, detailed images of tissues and cells but not of the small structures
within cells
- Low resolution
b) Transmission electron: uses a beam of electrons
- Sharp images with more magnification
- Fine details
- Specimen must be fixed: preserved
- Must be cut into sections thin though to transmit light or elections
- Must be stained to enhance contrast: may consist of positive or negative molecules of
bye that bind within the tissue to macromplecules of the opposite charge
- most common is a combination of two dyes
1. Hematoxylin: basic, brings to acidic, dark blue, purple
2. Eosin: acidic to basic, red and pink
a) Acidic stainsL negative dyes with positive structures
b) Basic stains: opposite
Scanning electron microscopy:
- Three dimensional pictures of whole, unsectioned surfaces with very clear pictures
- Preserved and coated with fine layers of carbon and gold dust
- Electron beam scans the specimen making secondary electrons to be emitted from surface
- Detector saptures these electrons and makes them into a 3d image
- SEM is accurate and looks very real
- Black and white but can be coloured
Artifacts:
- Preserved tissue seen under the microscope has been exposed to many procedures that
alter its original condition
- Minor distortions called artifacts, most microscopic structures viewed by anatomists are
not exactly like those living tissue
Clinical anatomy:
1. X ray:
- 1895 by accident
- Electromagnetic waves of very short wavelengths
- Some rays are absorbed depending on the density of the matter
- Rays that pass through the body expose a piece of film behind the patient making
the image
- Image is a negative (darker areas are soft organs and lighter are bones)
- Mammography: uses low bose x rays of the lower back and hip for osteoporosis
