Summary Social Challenges, required reading
Table of Contents
States and Welfare States. Government for the People 1
EU welfare systems and the challenge of poverty and inequality 5
The Social Identity Perspective in Intergroup Relations: Theories, Themes, and
Controversies 13
Rethinking Social Policy from a Capability Perspective 19
Leaving No One Behind: Climate Change as a Societal Challenge for Social
Justice and Solidarity 22
A Social Identity Analysis of Climate Change and Environmental Attitudes
and Behaviors: Insights and Opportunities 25
Social Policy Without Growth: Moving Towards Sustainable Welfare States 31
Advancing the social cure – Implications for theory, practice, and policy 34
Health and social justice 41
HIV Support Groups and the Chronicities of Everyday Life in eSwatini 45
Local identity and the reception of refugees: the example of Riace 51
Welfare Chauvinism: Are Immigrants Granted Access to Welfare State Bene ts? 54
Socially Inclusive Parenting Leaves and Parental Bene t Entitlements:
Rethinking Care and Work Binaries 56
The (in)compatibility of identities: Understanding gender differences in work-life con ict
through the t with leaders 61
Work and Family in the Second Decade of the 21st Century 67
fi fi fi fl
, States and Welfare States. Government for the People.
1 | Introduction: the state, and what it has become
Spicker, Paul. (2023). States and Welfare States. Government for the People. Bristol:
Policy Press. Chapters 1 and 3. Available as an e-book through the university
library.
Government is both a set of institutions and a process
- Institutions: the government consists of the agencies and the of cials who make and
set policy
- Process: the political direction of those institutions
The term ‘state’ is used to refer to the system as a whole. The term ‘welfare state’ can be
used to refer to the provision of services by the state, to societies where welfare is provided,
and to an ideal model where welfare is provided more extensively.
A government’s duties are often seen as an exchange between the rulers and the ruled: the
rulers gain power, the ruled get order. Another discussed subject is the ancient principle,
salus populi suprema lex: ‘the welfare of the people is the highest law’. Thomas Hobbes
argued that good government is in the interest of both the ruler and the people who are ruled.
The test is whether a government improves people’s welfare, and this advancement of
welfare is a moral duty on governments. There should be (1) multitude: a population
increasing in number, (2) commodity of the living: liberty and wealth, (3) peace amongst
ourselves: justice, fair dealing, and (4) defense against foreign people.
Some misconceptions
Many traditional views on the state, like Weber’s, emphasize its reliance on physical force as
a de ning feature. However, Weber himself acknowledged that force is neither the only nor
the primary method of governance, suggesting a more nuanced understanding of the state’s
role is needed today. States reserve the right to employ physical force, while generally
claiming a complementary right to constrain the use of force by their citizens. However,
states also routinely constrain their own use of force, implying a legitimate use of force. The
representations of defense, security and armed force as the primary duties of governments
are part of a paradigm that argues a state as an exercise in armed power. However, seizing
power is not the only function that governments engage in. In the 19th century, contemporary
states shifted to ‘positive welfare’; positive action to improve welfare, where government
takes action to bene t people directly, engaging actively in measures intended to serve the
public.
The growth of ‘positive welfare’
The creation of ‘welfare states’ either preceded, or went hand in hand with the view of the
state as a protective organization, which aims to protect its citizens from violence as well as
economically and socially. Some religions had made prescriptions for the organization of
charitable relief, already in the 16th century. States have historically taken on more
responsibilities for the well-being of their citizens. When the principle of laissez-faire (which is
the idea that the role of the government should deliberately be limited to a minimum)
dominated in the 19th century, the complex role of welfare has been overlooked in political
theory. Johann Bluntschli, writing in the 1870s, offered a forward-thinking view of the modern
state that recognized its evolving role beyond mere power and control. His key points re ect
a shift toward legal, representative, and rights-based governance.
fi fi fi fl
, The contemporary state
The state is often referred to a set of administrative processes and services that its
institutions provide, but the state also routinely interacts with people in their daily lives. The
state employs people, manages social infrastructure, delivers bene ts and services. Most
knowledge about states come from comparative policy studies of differences between
countries. This book however pays attention to the phenomenon that government
responsibility for social welfare services has become the norm. Some states do not have the
capacity to deliver what they promise, but there is a growing acknowledgement among
governments of all political colors and temperaments that providing welfare is what they
ought to be doing. A modern state is shaped with adapting institutions to social protection
and service delivery.
3 | Public policy
Policy refers to a statement of aspirations, speci c proposals, a programme for action, or a
eld of action.
Economic policy
That states should engage themselves in the operation of the economy is now seen as a
core responsibility of governments, though debate continues over how and in what way they
should intervene. The major categories of economic policy are
1. Fiscal policy; taxation and government expenditure.
2. Monetary policy; supply of money and interest rates.
3. International trade policy; regulating imports and exports.
Governments use the money they spend to steer the economy, to redistribute resources, and
to guide behavior. Many of industries and jobs in the modern economy occupy the place they
hold because they were promoted, supported or developed by the actions of national
governments.
The main divide in economic thought lies between those who want governments limited to
setting market frameworks and those who advocate for direct intervention. Historically,
economic theory shifted:
- Classical economists emphasized markets and individuals.
- 19th-century economists like Ricardo and Marshall considered national aggregates.
- Keynes introduced macroeconomics, showing that unemployment is a systemic
waste and arguing governments must regulate investment and demand.
Keynesianism shaped policy in major economies but worked less well in weaker
states.
Later, monetarism challenged Keynes, focusing on money supply and public spending, being
the governments responsibility. However, monetarist claims (governments must balance
budgets, control money supply, or avoid de cits) are disputed. Modern Monetary Theory
goes further, claiming sovereign governments can always fund spending in their own
currency. In practice, governments raise resources in many ways beyond taxation and
borrowing, and many successful industries rely on public investment.
Public expenditure is often misunderstood: much of it consists of transfer payments (like
pensions), which don’t reduce overall wealth but shift who spends it. Austerity policies, which
fi fi fi fi
, reduce public spending and promote privatization, are criticized for depressing economies
rather than stimulating them.
Despite ideological differences, there is consensus that governments should play an active
role in economic policy, even if libertarians still argue for minimal interference.
Social policy: public and social welfare states
Services for social welfare are divided into public services (policing, justice, roads) and social
services (education, health care, child protection). These services should be understood in
the same terms, providing or securing the provision of a range of services that bene t the
population, either collectively or individually. Public services differ from commercial goods in
three ways:
1. The rationale for the services is based on whether they achieve the aims of public
policy rather than commercial criteria.
2. The people who pay for public services are not necessarily those who receive them.
3. If payment is divorced from the receipt of services, any contractual relationship has to
lie elsewhere. People who pay do it in the interests of third parties: A pays B for the
bene t of C.
Public services are not always run directly by governments, they may also be provided by
autonomous agencies, charities, non-pro ts, or mutual aid groups. Because the need for
collective provision is strong, people often nd ways to cooperate if the state does not
provide. Most countries have mixed systems, combining public, private and voluntary
provision. Governments often use a ‘corporatist’ approach: either they form partnerships to
set a common agenda, or co-opt independent agencies into following their lead. Some
services are ‘institutional’ (pensions, where provision by the state is normalized) and some
are universal and decommodi ed (schools, policing, libraries) meaning they are provided
without reference to market criteria. The exact range of such services varies across
countries. Education and health are most provided by governments. Social security is not
quite universal yet, but it is catching up.
Policies for society
Policies for society or ‘societal’ policy is concerned with the ways that governments might
change or steer relationships between people. While the idea of privacy implies that people
are entitled to have a reserved space that other cannot interfere with, the things we do with
our bodies are highly socialized. Foucault used the term ‘bio-power’ to argue that societies
are shot through with relationships of power determining and constraining people’s use of
their bodies. One’s existence as a citizen has to be registered (birth, marriage, death) and
there are laws to regulate these events. The role of the government is to set a framework
and basic standards, which apply to all citizens, without directly controlling personal
relationships. An example is child protection laws, which don’t eliminate the behavior but
raise the minimum standard of conduct and shift moral norms across society. This differs
from economic policy’s marginal incentives, as the goal is broader cultural change.
Beyond interpersonal issues, governments also face structural inequalities (economic class,
gender, race). These are deeper than economic differences and are hard to reverse.
Governments usually try to promote equal opportunities through: propaganda, legal redress
for individuals, guidance for the practice of organizations, and leadership and role models.
Such measures often produce limited change. The biggest impact comes instead from
general social policies, like establishing legal rights, expanding education, and reducing
poverty and ill-health, which otherwise block opportunities.
fi fi fi fi fi
Table of Contents
States and Welfare States. Government for the People 1
EU welfare systems and the challenge of poverty and inequality 5
The Social Identity Perspective in Intergroup Relations: Theories, Themes, and
Controversies 13
Rethinking Social Policy from a Capability Perspective 19
Leaving No One Behind: Climate Change as a Societal Challenge for Social
Justice and Solidarity 22
A Social Identity Analysis of Climate Change and Environmental Attitudes
and Behaviors: Insights and Opportunities 25
Social Policy Without Growth: Moving Towards Sustainable Welfare States 31
Advancing the social cure – Implications for theory, practice, and policy 34
Health and social justice 41
HIV Support Groups and the Chronicities of Everyday Life in eSwatini 45
Local identity and the reception of refugees: the example of Riace 51
Welfare Chauvinism: Are Immigrants Granted Access to Welfare State Bene ts? 54
Socially Inclusive Parenting Leaves and Parental Bene t Entitlements:
Rethinking Care and Work Binaries 56
The (in)compatibility of identities: Understanding gender differences in work-life con ict
through the t with leaders 61
Work and Family in the Second Decade of the 21st Century 67
fi fi fi fl
, States and Welfare States. Government for the People.
1 | Introduction: the state, and what it has become
Spicker, Paul. (2023). States and Welfare States. Government for the People. Bristol:
Policy Press. Chapters 1 and 3. Available as an e-book through the university
library.
Government is both a set of institutions and a process
- Institutions: the government consists of the agencies and the of cials who make and
set policy
- Process: the political direction of those institutions
The term ‘state’ is used to refer to the system as a whole. The term ‘welfare state’ can be
used to refer to the provision of services by the state, to societies where welfare is provided,
and to an ideal model where welfare is provided more extensively.
A government’s duties are often seen as an exchange between the rulers and the ruled: the
rulers gain power, the ruled get order. Another discussed subject is the ancient principle,
salus populi suprema lex: ‘the welfare of the people is the highest law’. Thomas Hobbes
argued that good government is in the interest of both the ruler and the people who are ruled.
The test is whether a government improves people’s welfare, and this advancement of
welfare is a moral duty on governments. There should be (1) multitude: a population
increasing in number, (2) commodity of the living: liberty and wealth, (3) peace amongst
ourselves: justice, fair dealing, and (4) defense against foreign people.
Some misconceptions
Many traditional views on the state, like Weber’s, emphasize its reliance on physical force as
a de ning feature. However, Weber himself acknowledged that force is neither the only nor
the primary method of governance, suggesting a more nuanced understanding of the state’s
role is needed today. States reserve the right to employ physical force, while generally
claiming a complementary right to constrain the use of force by their citizens. However,
states also routinely constrain their own use of force, implying a legitimate use of force. The
representations of defense, security and armed force as the primary duties of governments
are part of a paradigm that argues a state as an exercise in armed power. However, seizing
power is not the only function that governments engage in. In the 19th century, contemporary
states shifted to ‘positive welfare’; positive action to improve welfare, where government
takes action to bene t people directly, engaging actively in measures intended to serve the
public.
The growth of ‘positive welfare’
The creation of ‘welfare states’ either preceded, or went hand in hand with the view of the
state as a protective organization, which aims to protect its citizens from violence as well as
economically and socially. Some religions had made prescriptions for the organization of
charitable relief, already in the 16th century. States have historically taken on more
responsibilities for the well-being of their citizens. When the principle of laissez-faire (which is
the idea that the role of the government should deliberately be limited to a minimum)
dominated in the 19th century, the complex role of welfare has been overlooked in political
theory. Johann Bluntschli, writing in the 1870s, offered a forward-thinking view of the modern
state that recognized its evolving role beyond mere power and control. His key points re ect
a shift toward legal, representative, and rights-based governance.
fi fi fi fl
, The contemporary state
The state is often referred to a set of administrative processes and services that its
institutions provide, but the state also routinely interacts with people in their daily lives. The
state employs people, manages social infrastructure, delivers bene ts and services. Most
knowledge about states come from comparative policy studies of differences between
countries. This book however pays attention to the phenomenon that government
responsibility for social welfare services has become the norm. Some states do not have the
capacity to deliver what they promise, but there is a growing acknowledgement among
governments of all political colors and temperaments that providing welfare is what they
ought to be doing. A modern state is shaped with adapting institutions to social protection
and service delivery.
3 | Public policy
Policy refers to a statement of aspirations, speci c proposals, a programme for action, or a
eld of action.
Economic policy
That states should engage themselves in the operation of the economy is now seen as a
core responsibility of governments, though debate continues over how and in what way they
should intervene. The major categories of economic policy are
1. Fiscal policy; taxation and government expenditure.
2. Monetary policy; supply of money and interest rates.
3. International trade policy; regulating imports and exports.
Governments use the money they spend to steer the economy, to redistribute resources, and
to guide behavior. Many of industries and jobs in the modern economy occupy the place they
hold because they were promoted, supported or developed by the actions of national
governments.
The main divide in economic thought lies between those who want governments limited to
setting market frameworks and those who advocate for direct intervention. Historically,
economic theory shifted:
- Classical economists emphasized markets and individuals.
- 19th-century economists like Ricardo and Marshall considered national aggregates.
- Keynes introduced macroeconomics, showing that unemployment is a systemic
waste and arguing governments must regulate investment and demand.
Keynesianism shaped policy in major economies but worked less well in weaker
states.
Later, monetarism challenged Keynes, focusing on money supply and public spending, being
the governments responsibility. However, monetarist claims (governments must balance
budgets, control money supply, or avoid de cits) are disputed. Modern Monetary Theory
goes further, claiming sovereign governments can always fund spending in their own
currency. In practice, governments raise resources in many ways beyond taxation and
borrowing, and many successful industries rely on public investment.
Public expenditure is often misunderstood: much of it consists of transfer payments (like
pensions), which don’t reduce overall wealth but shift who spends it. Austerity policies, which
fi fi fi fi
, reduce public spending and promote privatization, are criticized for depressing economies
rather than stimulating them.
Despite ideological differences, there is consensus that governments should play an active
role in economic policy, even if libertarians still argue for minimal interference.
Social policy: public and social welfare states
Services for social welfare are divided into public services (policing, justice, roads) and social
services (education, health care, child protection). These services should be understood in
the same terms, providing or securing the provision of a range of services that bene t the
population, either collectively or individually. Public services differ from commercial goods in
three ways:
1. The rationale for the services is based on whether they achieve the aims of public
policy rather than commercial criteria.
2. The people who pay for public services are not necessarily those who receive them.
3. If payment is divorced from the receipt of services, any contractual relationship has to
lie elsewhere. People who pay do it in the interests of third parties: A pays B for the
bene t of C.
Public services are not always run directly by governments, they may also be provided by
autonomous agencies, charities, non-pro ts, or mutual aid groups. Because the need for
collective provision is strong, people often nd ways to cooperate if the state does not
provide. Most countries have mixed systems, combining public, private and voluntary
provision. Governments often use a ‘corporatist’ approach: either they form partnerships to
set a common agenda, or co-opt independent agencies into following their lead. Some
services are ‘institutional’ (pensions, where provision by the state is normalized) and some
are universal and decommodi ed (schools, policing, libraries) meaning they are provided
without reference to market criteria. The exact range of such services varies across
countries. Education and health are most provided by governments. Social security is not
quite universal yet, but it is catching up.
Policies for society
Policies for society or ‘societal’ policy is concerned with the ways that governments might
change or steer relationships between people. While the idea of privacy implies that people
are entitled to have a reserved space that other cannot interfere with, the things we do with
our bodies are highly socialized. Foucault used the term ‘bio-power’ to argue that societies
are shot through with relationships of power determining and constraining people’s use of
their bodies. One’s existence as a citizen has to be registered (birth, marriage, death) and
there are laws to regulate these events. The role of the government is to set a framework
and basic standards, which apply to all citizens, without directly controlling personal
relationships. An example is child protection laws, which don’t eliminate the behavior but
raise the minimum standard of conduct and shift moral norms across society. This differs
from economic policy’s marginal incentives, as the goal is broader cultural change.
Beyond interpersonal issues, governments also face structural inequalities (economic class,
gender, race). These are deeper than economic differences and are hard to reverse.
Governments usually try to promote equal opportunities through: propaganda, legal redress
for individuals, guidance for the practice of organizations, and leadership and role models.
Such measures often produce limited change. The biggest impact comes instead from
general social policies, like establishing legal rights, expanding education, and reducing
poverty and ill-health, which otherwise block opportunities.
fi fi fi fi fi
