Issues and Debates
sychologist names =Red
P
Statistics =Purple
Examples =Green
Important terminology/ information =Orange
,Issues and Debates
Discuss how gender bias has been presented in psychology (16)
Discuss how cultural bias has been presented in psychology (16)
Discuss free will and determinism in psychology (16)
Discuss the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16)
Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology (16)
Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches in psychology (16)
Discuss ethical implications in psychology. Refer to psychological research you have studied (16)
,Discuss how gender bias has been presented in psychology (16)
A01 - T he differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real
difference
- Alpha bias- A tendency to exaggerate differencesbetween men and women. The consequences are that
the theories devalue one gender, typically women. For example, the evolutionary approach suggests that
the evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be
dominant, why women have a more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely
to commit adultery.But times have changed.
- Beta bias -A tendency to ignore or minimise differencesbetween men and women.Kohlberg’slevels of
moral reasoning theory was developed on the basis of studying groups of American males, who all
answered questions based on moral dilemmase.g. theHeinz dilemma. The results were then generalised
to women
- Researchers should want to complete the highest level of research, therefore, any biases should be
removed and we should achieve universality
- Gender bias is prevelant in various stages of research, from awarding grants to the publication of research.
In turn, this may validate discrimination, usually towards women
A03 nderstanding the
U - ender bias is socially sensitive.
G
importance of - E.g.Darwin’stheory of sexual selection suggeststhat women are selective
addressing gender bias (choosy) in terms of mate selection
- specifically alpha bias - While men are less selective and more focused on focusing on reproducing with
-Darwin as many females as possible.
- This is socially sensitive because it reinforces harmful stereotypes towards men
and women.
- It creates a social construct that women are not predetermined to want multiple
sexual partners, and therefore any indicators of promiscuous behaviour may be
judged in a negative light.
- Consequently, these perceptions could lead to mistreatment towards women
who do not follow this stereotype.
E vidence of gender - L oring & Powellselected290 male and female psychiatriststo read case studies
bias and its effects - of patients’ behaviour and make a judgement on these people using
Loring and Powell standardised diagnostic criteria.
- When the patients were described asmale, 56% of psychiatristshad a
schizophrenia diagnosis. When patients were described as female, only 20%
were given a diagnosis of schizophrenia.
- This shows how gender bias can impact the accuracy of diagnosing schizophrenia
because it can lead to females being under-diagnosed and males being
over-diagnosed.
- Consequently, this could have implications in accessing treatment. If women are
underdiagnosed, they may not receive treatment.
ow hasLoring and
H - ue to this research psychiatrists can be trained to avoid this type of bias, or
D
Powell’sresearch been diagnostic manuals can be updated to reflect the difference in symptoms
beneficial? between males and females in order to achieve greater accuracy in diagnosis.
ow psychologists
H - S ome psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance
have come up with or value of women.
ways to mitigate - Cornwell et al.noted that females are better at emphasisingboth the value and
gender bias? - the positive attributes of women.
Cornwell et al. - This reduces the negative impact of previous research that has been biased, and
helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes which is important in reducing
gender bias and create a more accurate reflection of female behaviour.
, Discuss how cultural bias has been presented in psychology (16)
A01 - E thnocentrism- Evaluating other groups of peopleusing the standards and customs of one's own culture
and viewing others' cultures as inferior. E.g. Ainsworth's Strange Situation uses Western standards of
childbearing to examine baby behaviour. This study was conducted in the US and then inaccurately
generalised to the whole world - imposed etic. In Western cultures, it is seen as ‘normal’ for babies to
exhibit moderate levels of separation anxiety, whereas in Germany, a baby that displays any separation
anxiety would be classed as ‘clingy’ and insecurely attached.
- Cultural relativism- The view that behaviour, moralsand standards cannot be judged properly unless they
are viewed in the context of the culture in which they originate - could be done by indigenous researchers.
E.g. Milgram’s study into obedience was replicated in a variety of cultures, which disproved his original
theory that everyone would obey regardless of culture.
- Emic approach vs Etic approach - The emic (insider perspective) approach emphasises the distinction of
uniqueness in every culture; in comparison, the etic approach (outsider perspective) seeks universal aspects
of behaviour, and it applies theories across different cultures.
A03 ultural bias is already
C - S mith and Bondexamined a European textbook on socialpsychology and found
ingrained in today’s that98% of the psychological studies were conductedin Western countries
society -Smith and compared to a mere 2% of research from the rest of the world.
Bond - This suggests that cultural bias is institutionalised as students are only learning
about research from certain cultures. Thus making it difficult to remove cultural
bias from society as individuals have racist perceptions ingrained in their minds,
and schemas are already made and are difficult to change.
T he effects of cultural - ultural biases may perpetuate stereotypes.
C
bias - E.g. IQ tests were used and these tests were predominately based on Western
norms and values.
- Even though IQ tests are culturally biased, they are still used to compare
intelligence across cultures equally, even though non-Western countries will
perform worse and will be classified as less intelligent.
- This creates a false belief in the superiority of Western culture and intelligence,
and devalues the abilities of individuals from non-Western cultures.
- Consequently, individuals from non-Western cultures have low self-esteem, fewer
opportunities, and potentially face racism.
hy is it important to
W - E .g. Cultural bias is the main reason for the differences in the rates of
understand the effects schizophrenia found when diagnosing black and white Americans.
of cultural bias? - Black Americans are diagnosed with schizophrenia more than white Americans as
doctors misinterpret symptoms(e.g. auditory hallucinations)due to their
cultural differences with patients,
- Therefore, Black Americans are being diagnosed disproportionately.
- By recognising these cultural differences, psychologists can develop culturally
sensitive assessments. In turn, the development of treatments can be more
focused on specific cultures and can become more effective at treating
schizophrenia.
ow the awareness of
H - E .g. Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black people have
cultural bias has led to their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of
indigenous behaviours and attitudes.
psychologies (theories - This leads to theories that are more relevant to the lives and cultures of people
on specific experiences not only in Africa, but also to those far removed from their African origins.
of people in different - The development of indigenous psychologies is often seen as a strength of
cultural contexts)? cultural relativism, but there are limitations as well: Are Afrocentric theories not
as culturally biased as those they claim to replace?
sychologist names =Red
P
Statistics =Purple
Examples =Green
Important terminology/ information =Orange
,Issues and Debates
Discuss how gender bias has been presented in psychology (16)
Discuss how cultural bias has been presented in psychology (16)
Discuss free will and determinism in psychology (16)
Discuss the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16)
Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology (16)
Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches in psychology (16)
Discuss ethical implications in psychology. Refer to psychological research you have studied (16)
,Discuss how gender bias has been presented in psychology (16)
A01 - T he differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real
difference
- Alpha bias- A tendency to exaggerate differencesbetween men and women. The consequences are that
the theories devalue one gender, typically women. For example, the evolutionary approach suggests that
the evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be
dominant, why women have a more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely
to commit adultery.But times have changed.
- Beta bias -A tendency to ignore or minimise differencesbetween men and women.Kohlberg’slevels of
moral reasoning theory was developed on the basis of studying groups of American males, who all
answered questions based on moral dilemmase.g. theHeinz dilemma. The results were then generalised
to women
- Researchers should want to complete the highest level of research, therefore, any biases should be
removed and we should achieve universality
- Gender bias is prevelant in various stages of research, from awarding grants to the publication of research.
In turn, this may validate discrimination, usually towards women
A03 nderstanding the
U - ender bias is socially sensitive.
G
importance of - E.g.Darwin’stheory of sexual selection suggeststhat women are selective
addressing gender bias (choosy) in terms of mate selection
- specifically alpha bias - While men are less selective and more focused on focusing on reproducing with
-Darwin as many females as possible.
- This is socially sensitive because it reinforces harmful stereotypes towards men
and women.
- It creates a social construct that women are not predetermined to want multiple
sexual partners, and therefore any indicators of promiscuous behaviour may be
judged in a negative light.
- Consequently, these perceptions could lead to mistreatment towards women
who do not follow this stereotype.
E vidence of gender - L oring & Powellselected290 male and female psychiatriststo read case studies
bias and its effects - of patients’ behaviour and make a judgement on these people using
Loring and Powell standardised diagnostic criteria.
- When the patients were described asmale, 56% of psychiatristshad a
schizophrenia diagnosis. When patients were described as female, only 20%
were given a diagnosis of schizophrenia.
- This shows how gender bias can impact the accuracy of diagnosing schizophrenia
because it can lead to females being under-diagnosed and males being
over-diagnosed.
- Consequently, this could have implications in accessing treatment. If women are
underdiagnosed, they may not receive treatment.
ow hasLoring and
H - ue to this research psychiatrists can be trained to avoid this type of bias, or
D
Powell’sresearch been diagnostic manuals can be updated to reflect the difference in symptoms
beneficial? between males and females in order to achieve greater accuracy in diagnosis.
ow psychologists
H - S ome psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance
have come up with or value of women.
ways to mitigate - Cornwell et al.noted that females are better at emphasisingboth the value and
gender bias? - the positive attributes of women.
Cornwell et al. - This reduces the negative impact of previous research that has been biased, and
helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes which is important in reducing
gender bias and create a more accurate reflection of female behaviour.
, Discuss how cultural bias has been presented in psychology (16)
A01 - E thnocentrism- Evaluating other groups of peopleusing the standards and customs of one's own culture
and viewing others' cultures as inferior. E.g. Ainsworth's Strange Situation uses Western standards of
childbearing to examine baby behaviour. This study was conducted in the US and then inaccurately
generalised to the whole world - imposed etic. In Western cultures, it is seen as ‘normal’ for babies to
exhibit moderate levels of separation anxiety, whereas in Germany, a baby that displays any separation
anxiety would be classed as ‘clingy’ and insecurely attached.
- Cultural relativism- The view that behaviour, moralsand standards cannot be judged properly unless they
are viewed in the context of the culture in which they originate - could be done by indigenous researchers.
E.g. Milgram’s study into obedience was replicated in a variety of cultures, which disproved his original
theory that everyone would obey regardless of culture.
- Emic approach vs Etic approach - The emic (insider perspective) approach emphasises the distinction of
uniqueness in every culture; in comparison, the etic approach (outsider perspective) seeks universal aspects
of behaviour, and it applies theories across different cultures.
A03 ultural bias is already
C - S mith and Bondexamined a European textbook on socialpsychology and found
ingrained in today’s that98% of the psychological studies were conductedin Western countries
society -Smith and compared to a mere 2% of research from the rest of the world.
Bond - This suggests that cultural bias is institutionalised as students are only learning
about research from certain cultures. Thus making it difficult to remove cultural
bias from society as individuals have racist perceptions ingrained in their minds,
and schemas are already made and are difficult to change.
T he effects of cultural - ultural biases may perpetuate stereotypes.
C
bias - E.g. IQ tests were used and these tests were predominately based on Western
norms and values.
- Even though IQ tests are culturally biased, they are still used to compare
intelligence across cultures equally, even though non-Western countries will
perform worse and will be classified as less intelligent.
- This creates a false belief in the superiority of Western culture and intelligence,
and devalues the abilities of individuals from non-Western cultures.
- Consequently, individuals from non-Western cultures have low self-esteem, fewer
opportunities, and potentially face racism.
hy is it important to
W - E .g. Cultural bias is the main reason for the differences in the rates of
understand the effects schizophrenia found when diagnosing black and white Americans.
of cultural bias? - Black Americans are diagnosed with schizophrenia more than white Americans as
doctors misinterpret symptoms(e.g. auditory hallucinations)due to their
cultural differences with patients,
- Therefore, Black Americans are being diagnosed disproportionately.
- By recognising these cultural differences, psychologists can develop culturally
sensitive assessments. In turn, the development of treatments can be more
focused on specific cultures and can become more effective at treating
schizophrenia.
ow the awareness of
H - E .g. Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black people have
cultural bias has led to their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of
indigenous behaviours and attitudes.
psychologies (theories - This leads to theories that are more relevant to the lives and cultures of people
on specific experiences not only in Africa, but also to those far removed from their African origins.
of people in different - The development of indigenous psychologies is often seen as a strength of
cultural contexts)? cultural relativism, but there are limitations as well: Are Afrocentric theories not
as culturally biased as those they claim to replace?
