AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods
Lesson 1:
Learning Outcomes:
Understanding of self-report, including rating scales, questionnaires, and interviews
Knowledge of rating scales, open and closed questions, and their strengths and
weaknesses
Key evaluation criteria for research methods
Understanding of hypotheses (null & alternative, one- and two-tailed)
Ability to identify variables in research
Self-Report Methods
Any method that involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs...
1. Survey
Umbrella term for different types of research designs, including interviews and
questionnaires
Used to investigate specific research questions by gathering self-report data
2. Rating Scales
Likert-type scale
A statement is used and the participant decides how strongly they agree or disagree with the
statements
3. Questionnaires & Interviews Compared
Interview-Spoken
Questionnaire-Written
- asking questions & recording participants'
- No flexibility (only have structured questionnaire)
answers
- Asking a set list of questions to a number of Three types of interview
participants so that their answers can be (1) Structured
compared → Pre-set order of questions (fixed, pre-
- Open/closed questions determined questions)
- Most questions closed + make use of Likert → Little scope
Scale
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 1
, - Personal data – hypothesis will likely require Advantages
information about the respondent - The ease of analysis as structured interviews ask
all participants the same questions and the
answers, therefore, can be compared
- Anyone can carry out the interview as the
questions are clearly listed and there is no
deviation from them
Disadvantages
- Lack validity
- The interviewer will take the respondent
(participant) through the set questions even if
there is more that the respondent wants to say
- Restricts the respondent's answers and in some
ways be forced due to the questions
(2) Semi-structured
→ Schedule (plan) of questions
→ Freedom to follow up an answer of questions
(3) Unstructured
→ Questions are open
→ Flexible structure
→ Research question guides, but everything else is
unspecified
4. Types of Questions
Open questions (allow for opinions)
→ One that can be answered in any way a participant chooses
→ Yields qualitative data
E.g., Why do you like psychology?
Closed questions (Yes/No)
→ Limit the possible responses
→ Yields quantitative data
→ Limit the response of what can be answered
E.g., Are you male?
Do you like cake?
Rate from 1-10...
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 2
, Evaluating Research Methods/Studies
Reliability
→ The results would be the same if the research was conducted again on different occasions
→ Can be repeated
a.) Split-half
- First half of test against second half
- Assesses the internal consistencyof a test, such
- Odd-numbered compared to even-numbered
as psychometric tests and questionnaires
- Random split into two halves. Results are
- It measures the extent to which all parts of the
correlated
test contribute equally to what is being measured
- A typical assessment would involve giving
participants the same test on two separate
b.) Test-retest occasions
- Measures the stabilityof a test over time - If the same or similar results are obtained then
external reliability is established
- Time delay: not too long/too short
- If the data is similar then it is reliable
c.) Inter-rater reliability = inter-observer - Where observer scores do not significantly
reliability correlate then reliability can be improved by:
- The degree to which different raters give ●Training observers in the observation
consistent estimates of the same behavior- Inter- techniques
rater reliability can be used for interviews ● Ensuring behavior categories have been
operationalized
Subjectivity
→ Use of our own views & opinions
Objectivity
→ Backed up by statistics
Generalizability
Describes the extent to which research findings can be applied to settings other than that in
which they were originally tested
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 3
, Validity
Refers to whether a study measures or examines what it claims to measure or examine
→ We test what we intended to test
→ The results are genuine (real)
How much does the experiment's procedure or
Internal validity findings actually allow you to draw conclusions
about the effect of the IV on the DV?
Concerns the ability to generalize a research
finding beyond the particular setting in which it is
demonstrated to other settings.
- To deal with low ecological validity you should
Ecological validity
conduct research in everyday settings (low control,
low internal validity) and compare it to studies
(with the same aims). This can confirm overall
validity.
The extent to which test scores predict scores on
another measure/for future behavior.
Concerns the extent to which a test score actually
Predictive validity
is related to the behavior you want to measure.
Therefore, test scores can forecast performance
on another measure of the same behavior.
Evaluation of Interviews
Strengths Weaknesses
1. Rich and detailed data (increased validity) 1. Low reliability (especially unstructured
- Unstructured and semi-structured interviews interviews)
allow interviewees to express their views in their - Different interviewers, times, and settings can all
own words. Interviewers can ask follow-up affect responses. This makes it difficult to replicate
questions, clarify misunderstandings, and findings and reduces reliability.
explore topics in depth, leading to a richer
understanding of the topic. 2. Limited validity in structured interviews
- Because structured interviews follow a fixed set
of questions, participants cannot elaborate on their
2. Clarification improves understanding answers. This restricts depth and may force
- Unlike questionnaires, the interviewer can participants into giving limited or socially desirable
explain or rephrase a question if the participant answers.
does not understand, reducing the risk of
misinterpretation and increasing the validity of 3. Social desirability bias
the data. - Participants may try to present themselves in a
favourable light (e.g., underreporting undesirable
behaviour), especially in face-to-face interviews,
3. Flexibility of semi-structured interviews reducing the truthfulness of the data.
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 4
Lesson 1:
Learning Outcomes:
Understanding of self-report, including rating scales, questionnaires, and interviews
Knowledge of rating scales, open and closed questions, and their strengths and
weaknesses
Key evaluation criteria for research methods
Understanding of hypotheses (null & alternative, one- and two-tailed)
Ability to identify variables in research
Self-Report Methods
Any method that involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs...
1. Survey
Umbrella term for different types of research designs, including interviews and
questionnaires
Used to investigate specific research questions by gathering self-report data
2. Rating Scales
Likert-type scale
A statement is used and the participant decides how strongly they agree or disagree with the
statements
3. Questionnaires & Interviews Compared
Interview-Spoken
Questionnaire-Written
- asking questions & recording participants'
- No flexibility (only have structured questionnaire)
answers
- Asking a set list of questions to a number of Three types of interview
participants so that their answers can be (1) Structured
compared → Pre-set order of questions (fixed, pre-
- Open/closed questions determined questions)
- Most questions closed + make use of Likert → Little scope
Scale
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 1
, - Personal data – hypothesis will likely require Advantages
information about the respondent - The ease of analysis as structured interviews ask
all participants the same questions and the
answers, therefore, can be compared
- Anyone can carry out the interview as the
questions are clearly listed and there is no
deviation from them
Disadvantages
- Lack validity
- The interviewer will take the respondent
(participant) through the set questions even if
there is more that the respondent wants to say
- Restricts the respondent's answers and in some
ways be forced due to the questions
(2) Semi-structured
→ Schedule (plan) of questions
→ Freedom to follow up an answer of questions
(3) Unstructured
→ Questions are open
→ Flexible structure
→ Research question guides, but everything else is
unspecified
4. Types of Questions
Open questions (allow for opinions)
→ One that can be answered in any way a participant chooses
→ Yields qualitative data
E.g., Why do you like psychology?
Closed questions (Yes/No)
→ Limit the possible responses
→ Yields quantitative data
→ Limit the response of what can be answered
E.g., Are you male?
Do you like cake?
Rate from 1-10...
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 2
, Evaluating Research Methods/Studies
Reliability
→ The results would be the same if the research was conducted again on different occasions
→ Can be repeated
a.) Split-half
- First half of test against second half
- Assesses the internal consistencyof a test, such
- Odd-numbered compared to even-numbered
as psychometric tests and questionnaires
- Random split into two halves. Results are
- It measures the extent to which all parts of the
correlated
test contribute equally to what is being measured
- A typical assessment would involve giving
participants the same test on two separate
b.) Test-retest occasions
- Measures the stabilityof a test over time - If the same or similar results are obtained then
external reliability is established
- Time delay: not too long/too short
- If the data is similar then it is reliable
c.) Inter-rater reliability = inter-observer - Where observer scores do not significantly
reliability correlate then reliability can be improved by:
- The degree to which different raters give ●Training observers in the observation
consistent estimates of the same behavior- Inter- techniques
rater reliability can be used for interviews ● Ensuring behavior categories have been
operationalized
Subjectivity
→ Use of our own views & opinions
Objectivity
→ Backed up by statistics
Generalizability
Describes the extent to which research findings can be applied to settings other than that in
which they were originally tested
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 3
, Validity
Refers to whether a study measures or examines what it claims to measure or examine
→ We test what we intended to test
→ The results are genuine (real)
How much does the experiment's procedure or
Internal validity findings actually allow you to draw conclusions
about the effect of the IV on the DV?
Concerns the ability to generalize a research
finding beyond the particular setting in which it is
demonstrated to other settings.
- To deal with low ecological validity you should
Ecological validity
conduct research in everyday settings (low control,
low internal validity) and compare it to studies
(with the same aims). This can confirm overall
validity.
The extent to which test scores predict scores on
another measure/for future behavior.
Concerns the extent to which a test score actually
Predictive validity
is related to the behavior you want to measure.
Therefore, test scores can forecast performance
on another measure of the same behavior.
Evaluation of Interviews
Strengths Weaknesses
1. Rich and detailed data (increased validity) 1. Low reliability (especially unstructured
- Unstructured and semi-structured interviews interviews)
allow interviewees to express their views in their - Different interviewers, times, and settings can all
own words. Interviewers can ask follow-up affect responses. This makes it difficult to replicate
questions, clarify misunderstandings, and findings and reduces reliability.
explore topics in depth, leading to a richer
understanding of the topic. 2. Limited validity in structured interviews
- Because structured interviews follow a fixed set
of questions, participants cannot elaborate on their
2. Clarification improves understanding answers. This restricts depth and may force
- Unlike questionnaires, the interviewer can participants into giving limited or socially desirable
explain or rephrase a question if the participant answers.
does not understand, reducing the risk of
misinterpretation and increasing the validity of 3. Social desirability bias
the data. - Participants may try to present themselves in a
favourable light (e.g., underreporting undesirable
behaviour), especially in face-to-face interviews,
3. Flexibility of semi-structured interviews reducing the truthfulness of the data.
AQA - Topic 7: Research Methods 4
