AQA A Level Philosophy - Aristotle's Virtue ethics
Briefly outline Aristotle's view on the importance of feelings (3) - ANS-Aristotle gives a central
place to feelings in his moral theory. All our actions are a display of some emotion: desire,
anger, fear, confidence, envy, etc. Virtue means expressing the right/ appropriate amount of
these feelings, neither too much nor too little but 'in the mean'. A virtuous person has no inner
conflict; the don't have to overcome their feelings in order to do the right thing.
Briefly outline Involuntary actions (5) - ANS-1) An involuntary action is one that is contrary to our
intention.
2) Aristotle identifies two types of involuntary actions: those done in ignorance (which he calls
non-voluntary actions) and those done under compulsion.
3) Actions done under compulsion fall into two categories: straightforward types and more
complex 'mixed' types.
4) For example, a straightforward case would be either a sailor being taken off-course by the
wind or due to being kidnapped. In both of these situations, there is no intention by the sailor to
go off-course. The origins of the sailor going off-course are entirely external and the sailor
contributes nothing. So, the sailor is not responsible as there is a lack of agency. Aristotle
argues we should not be held responsible for these types of actions (neither praised nor
blamed).
5) Examples of complex cases would be a sailor is told to commit a robbery otherwise their
children will be murdered, or a sailor dumps their cargo overboard to avoid sinking during the
storm. Aristotle calls these 'mixed' because a) at the exact moment of action the sailor was in
control and intended to act in this way, but b) the sailor felt compelled and did not really choose
or intend these actions. There is some agency, some choice and so we are responsible and can
be praised or blamed. But judgements should take into account the circumstances - and so we
could be forgiven and pardoned.
Briefly outline non-voluntary actions (5) - ANS-1) A non-voluntary action is unintended because
it is done from ignorance.
2) For example, the Greek tragic hero, Oedipus, did not know that he killed his father and then
married his own mother.
3) There are many ways in which we are ignorant when we act - we don't know all the facts, we
misinterpret or misunderstand the situation etc.
,4) Whether we are responsible for non-voluntary actions depends on how we behave after we
find out the facts.
5) If there is regret and we wish we had acted differently, then the action was contrary to our
intention (involuntary). We would still be responsible but we could be forgiven and pardoned.
However, if there is no regret and we would not have acted differently, then we should be judged
and held fully responsible as if this were a voluntary action.
Briefly outline Voluntary actions (5) - ANS-1) A voluntary action is an intended action.
2) Only voluntary actions contribute to our character and virtues.
3) A voluntary action is one that we:
- intend to do and the origin of the action lies within us.
- carry out in full knowledge of what we are doing.
- freely choose.
4) If a knowing, intended action flows from our desires, then this is still freely chosen: it is wrong
to say we have been 'forced' to act by our desires.
5) We must bear full responsibility for our voluntary actions.
Define eudaimonia (3) - ANS-Eudaimonia is the good for a human life. Aristotle says it is 'living
well and faring well'. We have some idea of what it is when an animal or plant is living and faring
well - we talk of them 'flourishing'. So, eudaimonia is 'the good' or 'flourishing' for human beings
as the particular sort of being we are.
Define phronesis - ANS-Phronesis translates as 'practical wisdom' and basically means a
general understanding of good such that the person can think through and act according to what
is good.
Describe the distinction between act-centred and agent-centred moral theories. (3) -
ANS-Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics are two different examples of act-centred moral theories
due to their focus on actions when it comes to making moral assessments and judgments. They
share a common worldview in that particular actions are bearers of moral value — either being
right or wrong. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is an agent-centred theory in virtue of a primary focus
on people and their characters rather than singular actions. For Aristotle, morality has more to
do with the question "how should I be?" rather than "what should I do?"
Describe the relationship between function and the end for aristotle (3) - ANS-Aristotle was a
teleologist because he believed that every object has what he referred to as a final cause.
The Greek term telos refers to
what we might call a purpose, goal or end of an object.
, Aristotle embarks on an analysis in terms of the idea of ergon. This is often translated 'function'
(which is very similar to end or goal - telos) . The ergon of a thing is its function - the ergon of an
eye is to see.
Describe what Aristotle means by eudaimonia (12) - ANS-Eudaimonia is the good for a human
life. It is usually translated as 'happiness' but Aristotle says it is 'living well and faring well'. So,
eudaimonia is 'the good' or the 'good life' for human beings as the particular sort of being we
are. To achieve it is to live as best a human being can live.
It is active and not passive. We can talk of people being happy as a psychological state - it is
something that happens to them rather than something they make. But eudaimonia is not a
state of mind, but relates to an activity - the activity of living. A good life is one that realises the
full potential that a human life has. Aristotle famously defines eudaimonia as "the activity of the
soul in accordance with virtue."
Additionally, Eudaimonia is not something subjective, but objective. To say someone is or was
eudaimonia is to make an objective judgement about their life as a good human life. By contrast,
if someone says they are happy or unhappy, it is difficult to correct them or know better.
Also, Eudaimonia is stable and not transient. It does not come and go as happiness (in the
usual sense) can. For it is an evaluation of a life (a life lived well) or a person (a good person) as
a whole. These are very stable judgements.
In addition, Eudaimonia is the only Good. We never want to live and fare well in order to achieve
some other end. If there is a final end which we never seek for the sake of anything else, but
only ever for its own sake, this will be a final end 'without qualification'. This is eudaimonia.
Another reason why Aristotle says eudaimonia is the only good is eudaimonia is the most
desirable thing, and we can't make it more desirable by adding something else to it, so it is
self-sufficient.
Describe what Aristotle means by eudaimonia (5) - ANS-1) Eudaimonia is the good for a human
life. Aristotle says it is 'living well and faring well'.
2) It is active and not passive. We can talk of people being happy as a psychological state - it is
something that happens to them rather than something they make. But eudaimonia is not a
state of mind, but relates to an activity - the activity of living.
3) Eudaimonia is not something subjective, but objective. To say someone is or was eudaimonia
is to make an objective judgement about their life as a good human life. By contrast, if someone
says they are happy or unhappy, it is difficult to correct them or know better.
Briefly outline Aristotle's view on the importance of feelings (3) - ANS-Aristotle gives a central
place to feelings in his moral theory. All our actions are a display of some emotion: desire,
anger, fear, confidence, envy, etc. Virtue means expressing the right/ appropriate amount of
these feelings, neither too much nor too little but 'in the mean'. A virtuous person has no inner
conflict; the don't have to overcome their feelings in order to do the right thing.
Briefly outline Involuntary actions (5) - ANS-1) An involuntary action is one that is contrary to our
intention.
2) Aristotle identifies two types of involuntary actions: those done in ignorance (which he calls
non-voluntary actions) and those done under compulsion.
3) Actions done under compulsion fall into two categories: straightforward types and more
complex 'mixed' types.
4) For example, a straightforward case would be either a sailor being taken off-course by the
wind or due to being kidnapped. In both of these situations, there is no intention by the sailor to
go off-course. The origins of the sailor going off-course are entirely external and the sailor
contributes nothing. So, the sailor is not responsible as there is a lack of agency. Aristotle
argues we should not be held responsible for these types of actions (neither praised nor
blamed).
5) Examples of complex cases would be a sailor is told to commit a robbery otherwise their
children will be murdered, or a sailor dumps their cargo overboard to avoid sinking during the
storm. Aristotle calls these 'mixed' because a) at the exact moment of action the sailor was in
control and intended to act in this way, but b) the sailor felt compelled and did not really choose
or intend these actions. There is some agency, some choice and so we are responsible and can
be praised or blamed. But judgements should take into account the circumstances - and so we
could be forgiven and pardoned.
Briefly outline non-voluntary actions (5) - ANS-1) A non-voluntary action is unintended because
it is done from ignorance.
2) For example, the Greek tragic hero, Oedipus, did not know that he killed his father and then
married his own mother.
3) There are many ways in which we are ignorant when we act - we don't know all the facts, we
misinterpret or misunderstand the situation etc.
,4) Whether we are responsible for non-voluntary actions depends on how we behave after we
find out the facts.
5) If there is regret and we wish we had acted differently, then the action was contrary to our
intention (involuntary). We would still be responsible but we could be forgiven and pardoned.
However, if there is no regret and we would not have acted differently, then we should be judged
and held fully responsible as if this were a voluntary action.
Briefly outline Voluntary actions (5) - ANS-1) A voluntary action is an intended action.
2) Only voluntary actions contribute to our character and virtues.
3) A voluntary action is one that we:
- intend to do and the origin of the action lies within us.
- carry out in full knowledge of what we are doing.
- freely choose.
4) If a knowing, intended action flows from our desires, then this is still freely chosen: it is wrong
to say we have been 'forced' to act by our desires.
5) We must bear full responsibility for our voluntary actions.
Define eudaimonia (3) - ANS-Eudaimonia is the good for a human life. Aristotle says it is 'living
well and faring well'. We have some idea of what it is when an animal or plant is living and faring
well - we talk of them 'flourishing'. So, eudaimonia is 'the good' or 'flourishing' for human beings
as the particular sort of being we are.
Define phronesis - ANS-Phronesis translates as 'practical wisdom' and basically means a
general understanding of good such that the person can think through and act according to what
is good.
Describe the distinction between act-centred and agent-centred moral theories. (3) -
ANS-Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics are two different examples of act-centred moral theories
due to their focus on actions when it comes to making moral assessments and judgments. They
share a common worldview in that particular actions are bearers of moral value — either being
right or wrong. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is an agent-centred theory in virtue of a primary focus
on people and their characters rather than singular actions. For Aristotle, morality has more to
do with the question "how should I be?" rather than "what should I do?"
Describe the relationship between function and the end for aristotle (3) - ANS-Aristotle was a
teleologist because he believed that every object has what he referred to as a final cause.
The Greek term telos refers to
what we might call a purpose, goal or end of an object.
, Aristotle embarks on an analysis in terms of the idea of ergon. This is often translated 'function'
(which is very similar to end or goal - telos) . The ergon of a thing is its function - the ergon of an
eye is to see.
Describe what Aristotle means by eudaimonia (12) - ANS-Eudaimonia is the good for a human
life. It is usually translated as 'happiness' but Aristotle says it is 'living well and faring well'. So,
eudaimonia is 'the good' or the 'good life' for human beings as the particular sort of being we
are. To achieve it is to live as best a human being can live.
It is active and not passive. We can talk of people being happy as a psychological state - it is
something that happens to them rather than something they make. But eudaimonia is not a
state of mind, but relates to an activity - the activity of living. A good life is one that realises the
full potential that a human life has. Aristotle famously defines eudaimonia as "the activity of the
soul in accordance with virtue."
Additionally, Eudaimonia is not something subjective, but objective. To say someone is or was
eudaimonia is to make an objective judgement about their life as a good human life. By contrast,
if someone says they are happy or unhappy, it is difficult to correct them or know better.
Also, Eudaimonia is stable and not transient. It does not come and go as happiness (in the
usual sense) can. For it is an evaluation of a life (a life lived well) or a person (a good person) as
a whole. These are very stable judgements.
In addition, Eudaimonia is the only Good. We never want to live and fare well in order to achieve
some other end. If there is a final end which we never seek for the sake of anything else, but
only ever for its own sake, this will be a final end 'without qualification'. This is eudaimonia.
Another reason why Aristotle says eudaimonia is the only good is eudaimonia is the most
desirable thing, and we can't make it more desirable by adding something else to it, so it is
self-sufficient.
Describe what Aristotle means by eudaimonia (5) - ANS-1) Eudaimonia is the good for a human
life. Aristotle says it is 'living well and faring well'.
2) It is active and not passive. We can talk of people being happy as a psychological state - it is
something that happens to them rather than something they make. But eudaimonia is not a
state of mind, but relates to an activity - the activity of living.
3) Eudaimonia is not something subjective, but objective. To say someone is or was eudaimonia
is to make an objective judgement about their life as a good human life. By contrast, if someone
says they are happy or unhappy, it is difficult to correct them or know better.
