Yvette Balata 2676719
Group 19
Tutor: Atul Suri
23/09/2020
SSA 4
a. Explain the following four paradigms of research, as described by Ioannidis: op-
timal, self-correcting, false non-replication, and perpetuated fallacy.
In his 2012 article, J.P. Ioannidis illustrates four paradigms of discovery and replication
from which it is possible to estimate the degree of credibility of a certain finding.
The optimal paradigm refers to a correct discovery which has been correctly replicated;
the self-correcting paradigm is described as the correction through replication of wrong
findings. The last two, that is, perpetuated fallacy, or the incorrect replication of wrong
findings, and false non-replication, or the wrong replication of correct discoveries, repre-
sent a threat to credibility. Moreover, perpetuated fallacy appears to be the most domi-
nant paradigm, both because of a lack of direct replication and because of the high
prevalence of replication studies conducted by the original investigators. (Ioannidis, 2012)
b. What is the difference between causation and correlation?
In science, correlation refers to a relationship between two variables which “display a de-
creasing or increasing trend” (Altman & Krzywinski, 2015, p. 899). Causation, on the other
hand, implies that a dependent variable changes as a result of a change in the indepen-
dent variable. In order for there to be a causal relation between two variables, these must
be empirically associated, the independent variable must take place temporally before the
dependent variable, and there must be control for possible confounding variables. Fur-
thermore, tests should be conducted through a Randomized Controlled Trial design, that
is, through the random assignment of participants to an experimental group and to a con-
trol group. (De Bruin, 2020)
c. What is the common-sense concept of science?
The modern common-sense definition of science, namely that “science is derived from
the facts” (Chalmers, 1999) has only been relatively recently introduced following the
establishment of a scientific method that required observation based on facts rather than
preconceived ideas (Chalmers, 1999). Moreover, three assumptions about science are
proposed, that being: facts are given by our senses with no preexisting opinions about
them, facts are not based on theories, and finally, they are the foundation of scientific
knowledge. However, Chalmers (1999) poses a question regarding this commonly accep-
ted concept. That is, it highlights how one possible fallacy in this definition resides in the
Group 19
Tutor: Atul Suri
23/09/2020
SSA 4
a. Explain the following four paradigms of research, as described by Ioannidis: op-
timal, self-correcting, false non-replication, and perpetuated fallacy.
In his 2012 article, J.P. Ioannidis illustrates four paradigms of discovery and replication
from which it is possible to estimate the degree of credibility of a certain finding.
The optimal paradigm refers to a correct discovery which has been correctly replicated;
the self-correcting paradigm is described as the correction through replication of wrong
findings. The last two, that is, perpetuated fallacy, or the incorrect replication of wrong
findings, and false non-replication, or the wrong replication of correct discoveries, repre-
sent a threat to credibility. Moreover, perpetuated fallacy appears to be the most domi-
nant paradigm, both because of a lack of direct replication and because of the high
prevalence of replication studies conducted by the original investigators. (Ioannidis, 2012)
b. What is the difference between causation and correlation?
In science, correlation refers to a relationship between two variables which “display a de-
creasing or increasing trend” (Altman & Krzywinski, 2015, p. 899). Causation, on the other
hand, implies that a dependent variable changes as a result of a change in the indepen-
dent variable. In order for there to be a causal relation between two variables, these must
be empirically associated, the independent variable must take place temporally before the
dependent variable, and there must be control for possible confounding variables. Fur-
thermore, tests should be conducted through a Randomized Controlled Trial design, that
is, through the random assignment of participants to an experimental group and to a con-
trol group. (De Bruin, 2020)
c. What is the common-sense concept of science?
The modern common-sense definition of science, namely that “science is derived from
the facts” (Chalmers, 1999) has only been relatively recently introduced following the
establishment of a scientific method that required observation based on facts rather than
preconceived ideas (Chalmers, 1999). Moreover, three assumptions about science are
proposed, that being: facts are given by our senses with no preexisting opinions about
them, facts are not based on theories, and finally, they are the foundation of scientific
knowledge. However, Chalmers (1999) poses a question regarding this commonly accep-
ted concept. That is, it highlights how one possible fallacy in this definition resides in the
