1
FRENCH REVOLUTION-I
BACKGROUND OF THE REVOLUTION
Objectives:
1. To understand the nature of the Ancient Regime that existed
in France on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789.
2. To have an insight into the political, social and economic
conditions in France which ultimately led to the Revolution of
1789.
1.1. Introduction Towards the end of the eighteenth century, an
uprising staged by the French people against the autocracy and
aristocracy, which came to be known as the French Revolution,
shook Europe. The French Revolution brought about a major
transformation of the society and political system in France that
lasted from 1789 to 1799. During the course of the Revolution,
France was temporarily transformed from an absolute monarchy,
where the king monopolized power, to a republic of theoretically
free and equal citizens. The effects of the French Revolution were
widespread, both inside and outside of France, and the Revolution
ranks as one of the most important events in the history of Europe.
During the ten years of the Revolution, France first transformed and
then dismantled the Ancient Regime (Old Order), the political and
social system that existed in France before 1789, and replaced it
with a series of different governments. Although none of these
governments lasted more than four years, the many initiatives they
enacted permanently altered France‘s political system. These
initiatives included the drafting of several bills of rights and
constitutions, the establishment of legal equality among all citizens,
experiments with representative democracy, the incorporation of
the church into the state, and the reconstruction of state
administration and the law code.
Many of these changes were adopted elsewhere in Europe as well.
Change was a matter of choice in some places, but in others it was
imposed by the French army during the French Revolutionary Wars
(1792-1797) and the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815). To later
generations of Europeans and non-Europeans, who sought to
overturn their political and social systems, the French Revolution
provided the most influential model of popular insurrection until the
Russian Revolution of 1917.
, 2
1.2 Background of the French Revolution of 1789: Historians
are not unanimous regarding the factors that brought about
the Revolution of 1789 in France. To some extent at least,
the Revolution broke out not because France was backward
but because the country‘s economic and intellectual
development was not matched by social and political change
that was taking place in France. In the fixed order of the
ancient regime most bourgeoisie were unable to exercise
political and social influence in the state. King Louis XIV, by
consolidating absolute monarchy had destroyed the roots of
feudalism, yet outward feudal forms persisted and became
increasingly burdensome.
Lord Chesterfield described the conditions in France on the eve
of the Revolution in the following words: ―A monarchy that was
despotic and weak; a corrupt and worldly church; a nobility
increasingly parasitical; a bankrupt exchequer; and irritated
bourgeois; and oppressed peasantry; financial, administrative
and economic anarchy, a nation strained and divided by
misgovernment and mutual suspicion.‖ Such was the
background that existed in France prior to the Revolution of
1789.
1.2.1 Political Background:
1.2.1. a. Ancient Regime (Old Order): In order to understand the
factors that were responsible for the outbreak of the French
Revolution in 1789, it is important to examine the conditions and
institutions that existed in France prior to the Revolution. These
conditions and institutions were collectively known as the Ancient
Regime. Ancient Regime means Old Rule or Old Order in French
language. In English the term refers primarily to the political and
social system that was established in France under the Valois and
Bourbon dynasties. More generally it means any regime which
includes the defining features such as: a feudal system under the
control of a powerful absolute monarchy supported by the doctrine
of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit consent of the
established Church. This was how Europe had been organized
since at least the eighth century. The term Ancient Regime is from
The Age of Enlightenment (first appeared in print in English in
1794). Similar to other sweeping criticisms of the past, such as the
term ‗Dark Ages‘, the concept of Ancient Regime was used as an
expression of disapproval for the way things were done, and carried
an implied approval of a ‗New Order‘. No one alive during the
Ancient regime considered himself as living under an ‗Old Order‘.
The term was created by Enlightenment era authors to promote a
new cause and discredit the existing order.
, 3
As defined by the creators of the term, the Ancient Regime
developed out of the French monarchy of the Middle Ages, and was
swept away centuries later by the French Revolution of 1789.
Europe‘s other Ancient Regimes had similar origins, but diverse
ends; some gradually became constitutional monarchies, others
were torn down by wars and revolutions. Power in the Ancient
Regime relied on three pillars: the monarchy, the clergy and the
aristocracy. Society was divided into three classes known as
estates: the clergy, the nobility and the commoners.
1.2.1. b.Royal Absolutism: The politico-social system which
existed in France throughout the rule of the Valois and Bourbon
dynasties, was half way between feudalism and modernity. France
was ruled by a powerful absolute monarch who relied on the
doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings. The absolute monarchy had
the explicit support of the established Church. This period in the
history of France is often said to have begun with the French
renaissance during the reign of Francis I (1515-1547), and to have
reached its peak under Louis XIV (1643-1715). As the Italian
Renaissance began to fade, France became the cultural capital of
Europe. Eventually, however, financial difficulties and excesses of
the rulers led to the decline and eventual collapse of the monarchy
by the end of the eighteenth century.
The system of Ancient Regime culminated in the monarch, the lofty
and glittering head of the state. The king claimed to rule by the will
of God and not by the consent of the people (Theory of the Divine
Right of Kings). Thus, the kings claimed to be responsible to no one
but God. The French Kings ruled in an absolute manner. They
exercised unlimited powers. They were the chief legislators,
executive and dispensers of justice. They imposed taxes and spent
money as they pleased. They declared wars and made peace as
they wished. They denied certain basic rights to their subjects.
Heavy censorship denied freedom of speech and press. Arbitrary
arrest, imprisonment, exile or even execution was the hallmarks of
the royal absolutism in France.
1.2.1. c. Nature of the Bourbon Rulers: The Bourbon dynasty
ruled France for about two centuries from 1589 to 1792. France
attained the height of glory under Louis XIV. He was known as the
‗Grand Monarch‘ and ‗Sun King‘. He believed in the divine sanction
of absolutism. He used to say ―I am the State.‖ Further he claimed:
―The sovereign authority is vested in my person, the legislative
powers exist in myself alone…My people are one only with me;
national rights and national interests are necessarily combined with
my own and only rest in my hands.‖ In order to manifest his power
and glory, Louis XIV led the nation in dangerous and expensive
wars against his neighbours and undertook construction of
magnificent buildings to beautify the capital city of Paris. Thus, his
, 4
expensive wars and lavish style of living weakened France
financially as well as politically.
More than any other construction of the age, the Palace of
Versailles, built by Louis XIV embodied the spirit of absolute
monarchy. The magnificent halls, ornate rooms and beautiful
gardens surrounding the royal residence added to the grandeur of
the Versailles Palace. The aristocracy of France assembled day
and night to do homage to the great ruler of France. The court of
Versailles which dazzled Europe was comprised of 18,000 people.
Out of these 16,000 were attached to the personal service of the
king and his family and 2,000 were the courtiers, the favoured
guests and nobles. The royal stables contained 1900 horses and
more than 200 carriages. In 1789, the total cost of the Versailles
extravaganza was $ 20,000,000.
Yet, Versailles which symbolized the glory of the Ancient Regime
was also the mark of its decline. Its cost to the French nation was
too much. Besides, it created a barrier between monarchy and its
subjects.
Louis XIV, the Grand Monarch left a legacy of financial bankruptcy
for his successors. While on deathbed, he is said to have advised
his successor Louis XV, his great grand son, in these words: ―My
child,…endeavour to live at peace with your neighbours, do not
imitate my fondness for war, not the exorbitant expenditure which I
have incurred…Endeavour to relieve the people at the earliest
possible moment and thus accomplish what unfortunately, I am
unable to do myself.‖
Louis XV (1715-1774) succeeded his great grand father at the age
of five. The first part of the long reign of 59 years falls into the
period of Regency (1715-1723) during which period his great uncle,
the Duke of Orleans ruled in his name. The confusion and disorder
of the Regency was followed by almost two decades of orderly rule
and material prosperity under the leadership of the aged Cardinal
Fleury (1723-1743). From 1743 until his death in 1774, Louis XV
tried to exercise direct control over the government which ultimately
led to the instability of the monarchy.
Louis XV displayed an apathy and indifference to the affairs of the
state. He was concerned primarily with the pursuit of pleasure and
all his life he sought to escape from boredom. Thus, he tried to
seek happiness in mad and vicious rounds of pleasure, in hunting,
in gambling, in lust, in moving his court from one palace to another,
in gratifying the whims and fancies of his numerous mistresses and
favourites.
FRENCH REVOLUTION-I
BACKGROUND OF THE REVOLUTION
Objectives:
1. To understand the nature of the Ancient Regime that existed
in France on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789.
2. To have an insight into the political, social and economic
conditions in France which ultimately led to the Revolution of
1789.
1.1. Introduction Towards the end of the eighteenth century, an
uprising staged by the French people against the autocracy and
aristocracy, which came to be known as the French Revolution,
shook Europe. The French Revolution brought about a major
transformation of the society and political system in France that
lasted from 1789 to 1799. During the course of the Revolution,
France was temporarily transformed from an absolute monarchy,
where the king monopolized power, to a republic of theoretically
free and equal citizens. The effects of the French Revolution were
widespread, both inside and outside of France, and the Revolution
ranks as one of the most important events in the history of Europe.
During the ten years of the Revolution, France first transformed and
then dismantled the Ancient Regime (Old Order), the political and
social system that existed in France before 1789, and replaced it
with a series of different governments. Although none of these
governments lasted more than four years, the many initiatives they
enacted permanently altered France‘s political system. These
initiatives included the drafting of several bills of rights and
constitutions, the establishment of legal equality among all citizens,
experiments with representative democracy, the incorporation of
the church into the state, and the reconstruction of state
administration and the law code.
Many of these changes were adopted elsewhere in Europe as well.
Change was a matter of choice in some places, but in others it was
imposed by the French army during the French Revolutionary Wars
(1792-1797) and the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815). To later
generations of Europeans and non-Europeans, who sought to
overturn their political and social systems, the French Revolution
provided the most influential model of popular insurrection until the
Russian Revolution of 1917.
, 2
1.2 Background of the French Revolution of 1789: Historians
are not unanimous regarding the factors that brought about
the Revolution of 1789 in France. To some extent at least,
the Revolution broke out not because France was backward
but because the country‘s economic and intellectual
development was not matched by social and political change
that was taking place in France. In the fixed order of the
ancient regime most bourgeoisie were unable to exercise
political and social influence in the state. King Louis XIV, by
consolidating absolute monarchy had destroyed the roots of
feudalism, yet outward feudal forms persisted and became
increasingly burdensome.
Lord Chesterfield described the conditions in France on the eve
of the Revolution in the following words: ―A monarchy that was
despotic and weak; a corrupt and worldly church; a nobility
increasingly parasitical; a bankrupt exchequer; and irritated
bourgeois; and oppressed peasantry; financial, administrative
and economic anarchy, a nation strained and divided by
misgovernment and mutual suspicion.‖ Such was the
background that existed in France prior to the Revolution of
1789.
1.2.1 Political Background:
1.2.1. a. Ancient Regime (Old Order): In order to understand the
factors that were responsible for the outbreak of the French
Revolution in 1789, it is important to examine the conditions and
institutions that existed in France prior to the Revolution. These
conditions and institutions were collectively known as the Ancient
Regime. Ancient Regime means Old Rule or Old Order in French
language. In English the term refers primarily to the political and
social system that was established in France under the Valois and
Bourbon dynasties. More generally it means any regime which
includes the defining features such as: a feudal system under the
control of a powerful absolute monarchy supported by the doctrine
of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit consent of the
established Church. This was how Europe had been organized
since at least the eighth century. The term Ancient Regime is from
The Age of Enlightenment (first appeared in print in English in
1794). Similar to other sweeping criticisms of the past, such as the
term ‗Dark Ages‘, the concept of Ancient Regime was used as an
expression of disapproval for the way things were done, and carried
an implied approval of a ‗New Order‘. No one alive during the
Ancient regime considered himself as living under an ‗Old Order‘.
The term was created by Enlightenment era authors to promote a
new cause and discredit the existing order.
, 3
As defined by the creators of the term, the Ancient Regime
developed out of the French monarchy of the Middle Ages, and was
swept away centuries later by the French Revolution of 1789.
Europe‘s other Ancient Regimes had similar origins, but diverse
ends; some gradually became constitutional monarchies, others
were torn down by wars and revolutions. Power in the Ancient
Regime relied on three pillars: the monarchy, the clergy and the
aristocracy. Society was divided into three classes known as
estates: the clergy, the nobility and the commoners.
1.2.1. b.Royal Absolutism: The politico-social system which
existed in France throughout the rule of the Valois and Bourbon
dynasties, was half way between feudalism and modernity. France
was ruled by a powerful absolute monarch who relied on the
doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings. The absolute monarchy had
the explicit support of the established Church. This period in the
history of France is often said to have begun with the French
renaissance during the reign of Francis I (1515-1547), and to have
reached its peak under Louis XIV (1643-1715). As the Italian
Renaissance began to fade, France became the cultural capital of
Europe. Eventually, however, financial difficulties and excesses of
the rulers led to the decline and eventual collapse of the monarchy
by the end of the eighteenth century.
The system of Ancient Regime culminated in the monarch, the lofty
and glittering head of the state. The king claimed to rule by the will
of God and not by the consent of the people (Theory of the Divine
Right of Kings). Thus, the kings claimed to be responsible to no one
but God. The French Kings ruled in an absolute manner. They
exercised unlimited powers. They were the chief legislators,
executive and dispensers of justice. They imposed taxes and spent
money as they pleased. They declared wars and made peace as
they wished. They denied certain basic rights to their subjects.
Heavy censorship denied freedom of speech and press. Arbitrary
arrest, imprisonment, exile or even execution was the hallmarks of
the royal absolutism in France.
1.2.1. c. Nature of the Bourbon Rulers: The Bourbon dynasty
ruled France for about two centuries from 1589 to 1792. France
attained the height of glory under Louis XIV. He was known as the
‗Grand Monarch‘ and ‗Sun King‘. He believed in the divine sanction
of absolutism. He used to say ―I am the State.‖ Further he claimed:
―The sovereign authority is vested in my person, the legislative
powers exist in myself alone…My people are one only with me;
national rights and national interests are necessarily combined with
my own and only rest in my hands.‖ In order to manifest his power
and glory, Louis XIV led the nation in dangerous and expensive
wars against his neighbours and undertook construction of
magnificent buildings to beautify the capital city of Paris. Thus, his
, 4
expensive wars and lavish style of living weakened France
financially as well as politically.
More than any other construction of the age, the Palace of
Versailles, built by Louis XIV embodied the spirit of absolute
monarchy. The magnificent halls, ornate rooms and beautiful
gardens surrounding the royal residence added to the grandeur of
the Versailles Palace. The aristocracy of France assembled day
and night to do homage to the great ruler of France. The court of
Versailles which dazzled Europe was comprised of 18,000 people.
Out of these 16,000 were attached to the personal service of the
king and his family and 2,000 were the courtiers, the favoured
guests and nobles. The royal stables contained 1900 horses and
more than 200 carriages. In 1789, the total cost of the Versailles
extravaganza was $ 20,000,000.
Yet, Versailles which symbolized the glory of the Ancient Regime
was also the mark of its decline. Its cost to the French nation was
too much. Besides, it created a barrier between monarchy and its
subjects.
Louis XIV, the Grand Monarch left a legacy of financial bankruptcy
for his successors. While on deathbed, he is said to have advised
his successor Louis XV, his great grand son, in these words: ―My
child,…endeavour to live at peace with your neighbours, do not
imitate my fondness for war, not the exorbitant expenditure which I
have incurred…Endeavour to relieve the people at the earliest
possible moment and thus accomplish what unfortunately, I am
unable to do myself.‖
Louis XV (1715-1774) succeeded his great grand father at the age
of five. The first part of the long reign of 59 years falls into the
period of Regency (1715-1723) during which period his great uncle,
the Duke of Orleans ruled in his name. The confusion and disorder
of the Regency was followed by almost two decades of orderly rule
and material prosperity under the leadership of the aged Cardinal
Fleury (1723-1743). From 1743 until his death in 1774, Louis XV
tried to exercise direct control over the government which ultimately
led to the instability of the monarchy.
Louis XV displayed an apathy and indifference to the affairs of the
state. He was concerned primarily with the pursuit of pleasure and
all his life he sought to escape from boredom. Thus, he tried to
seek happiness in mad and vicious rounds of pleasure, in hunting,
in gambling, in lust, in moving his court from one palace to another,
in gratifying the whims and fancies of his numerous mistresses and
favourites.
