Age
Evaluate the view that representations of age in the media are based on stereotypes (24 marks)
Representations of children can be seen to be based on stereotypes. For example, one of the more
significant stereotypes is children as active consumers – television commercials portray children as
having a consumer appetite for toys and games. Some family sociologists note that this has led to
the emergence of a new family pressure, ‘pester power’, the power of children to train or
manipulate their parents to spend money on consumer goods that will increase the children’s status
in the eyes of their peers. Similarly, representations of children in sitcoms are often set in happy,
safe, loving family environments and Heintz-Knowles (2002) points out how entertainment TV
almost never shows children grappling with important issues. Its suggested that programming
reflects an adult perspective on children and on their interests/concerns like how children are
motivated by peers and romance and least motivated by school or religious issues, causing them to
engage in anti-social behaviours. In terms of representations of different classifications of children,
Heintz-Knowles depicts how ethnic groups are underrepresented and how girls are twice as likely to
show affection and 60% of boys are more likely to use aggression. Therefore, there is a dominant
stereotypical portrayal of children in the media industry since assumptions have to be made on what
they consider truthful as they are too young to professionally portray this themselves.
Opposingly, research into representations of children can be seen to be less stereotypical as time
goes on and the media advances. Moreover, Postman (1982) argues that the development of
entertainment media from the 1950s has had an effect on 'childhood' as it had not existed as a
concept in earlier historical eras and that the modern idea of childhood has begun to disappear as
children interact more and more with the media. Postman was writing before the invention of the
internet, but his study of the effects of TV on children nevertheless illustrated sociological ideas
about media representations of children. He described ways in which children are prematurely
sexualised in media portrayals and the ways in which the media creates a world in which adults and
children share the same music, sports, language, literature and films. For example, one illustration of
the effects of this lies in the lack of differentiated clothing styles (little girls in high heels and adult
men wearing trainers) and the effects of this on young people's self-concept. Thus, the media's
influential representations of children appear to be moving further away from traditional
stereotypes.
Another way that stereotypes in the media are presented is in youth. A study called Hoodies or Altar
boys (2009) looked at national and regional newspaper content, looking at how stories on teenage
boys were covered. Furthermore, there were more newspaper stories about teens and crime than
about teens and all other subjects put together - terms like thugs, evil, monster, scum and heartless
were commonplace. In a similar vein, Clake found that it is the subcultural groups, such as punks or
chavs, that are often used by the media to represent youth in the contemporary UK which clearly
creates and reinforces an unrepresentative view of youth identity. This suggests that things are the
same as the days of mods and rockers, leaving plenty of time for stereotypes to present dominantly.
Wayne et al.'s (2008) content analysis of 2130 news items across all the main television channels
during May 2006 supports these findings. They found that young people were mainly represented as
a violent threat to society and it was very rare for news items to feature a young person’s
perspective or opinion (only 1% of the time). Moreover, they note that the media only delivers a
one-dimensional picture of youth, one that encourages fear and condemnation rather than
understanding which it distracts from the real problems that young people face in the modern world
such as homelessness, not being able to get onto the housing ladder, unemployment or mental
health and that these might be caused by society’s, or the government’s, failure to take the
,problems of youth seriously. Therefore, representations of youth in the media are based on
stereotypes.
However, representations of youth can also characterised as non-stereotypical. For example, whilst
Osergby (2002) noted a recurring theme of ‘youth as trouble’, he found that media representations
of youth reflect wider cultural developments. Further, the youth were portrayed positively in the
1950s due to a post-war mood of hope and prosperity whereas in the 1970s and 1980s they were
portrayed as violent which seemed to reflect concerns about chaos in society. Similarly, on the basis
of quantitative content analyses of Danish newspapers in 1953–2003, K. Levinsen and C. Wien found
that culture is reported quite frequently in Danish newspapers in regard to representations of youth.
Moreover, their analyses show that young people are now quoted more frequently than before
which they argue reflect the societal changes over the years where especially the youth revolution
during the 1960s and 1970s has contributed to a renewed public attention for young people.
Inevitably, this has led to an increase in exposure of the real-life, complex issues young people face
today such as the recent spate of school documentaries like ‘Educating Essex’ and contemporary
sitcoms like Derry Girls. Wherefore, representations of youth are arguably shifting away from being
based on stereotypes.
The elderly give another alternative insight into stereotypical representations of age in the media.
Further, Age Concern (2000) identified three key media stereotypes of the elderly. Old people were
disproportionately represented as: a burden, mentally challenged and grumpy. Withal, Landis (2002)
argues that the media ignores the complexity of real characters and rather focuses on these
stereotypes - an example being the Victor Meldrew character in One Foot in the Grave who
epitomises the archetypal grumpy old man. Arguably, there are significant gender differences in the
way old people are represented in the media: older men are much more visible in the media than
older women, and older men are much more likely to be associated with high status and work while
older women are generally associated with the family and poverty. Thornton emphasises the
significance of this by suggesting that ageism may be reflected through the under-representation of
middle-aged and elderly women as presenters on television. Thus, media representations of the
elderly are stereotypical.
Alternatively, some would argue that representations of the elderly are no longer based on
stereotypes. There is evidence of the elderly being more positive and involved, presented by Blaike,
in that the grey pound (the purchasing power of elderly people as consumers) is worth £215 billion a
year. Carrigan and Smizgen (2000) suggest that this has led to an increase in positive images of
ageing and positive roles for older people as it gives advertisers the motivation to present the elderly
(their consumers) agreeably. Featherstone and Hepworth (2005) argue that such media images of
ageing can create new identities and suggest that as the population ages, more of these may
emerge. The popularity of 'retro' fashions and comeback tours from bands from the 1970s and
1980s are also trends that help blur the boundaries of the life course, destroying the previous blocks
that stopped old people from accessing things like fashion e.g. Andie Macdowel's "never felt so
powerful" statement in her 60s. Postmodernists contend that the challenging that individuals like
her do of negative stereotypes lead to the entire concept of old age revolutionising. They refer to
this as a time of 'active ageing' when they embrace new opportunities in this time of reflection. A
good example of someone who gains extensive media coverage for her talent and 'active ageing' is
Helen Mirren, showing a more positive representation of older icons in the media. Wherefore, such
positivity leads to a conclusion to be made that media representations of the elderly are no longer
based on stereotypes.
To conclude, I agree with the view that representations of age in the media are majorly based on
stereotypes due to the fact that the stereotypes themselves are so well-known and familiar.
, Ethnicity
Evaluate the view that media representations of minority ethnic groups have improved (24 marks)
One way that media representations of minority ethnic groups can be seen to have improved is
through the entertainment industry. Furthermore, strides towards more accurate representation are
made through initiatives such as the Academy Awards' diversity and inclusion standards that state
that movies must have at least one 'lead or significant supporting actor' from an underrepresented
racial group, for example. Similarly in the UK, Broadcasting Standards Commission indicated that,
between 1999 and 2003, the representation of ethnic minorities in television programming became
more positive and respectful. Chris Barker (1999) cites the good example of this that is EastEnders
which is seen to reflect changes in representations in that it contains a range of black and Asian
characters with significant roles and the community that is portrayed in show can be described as
multi-ethnic. Arguably, these positive strides are viewed in a much broader horizon than just TV and
film in the entertainment industry. For example, the success of Black Panther and Crazy Rich Asians
showed that there is a market for diverse stories and that audiences want to see stories and
characters that reflect the world around them, opening doors for more opportunities for ethnic
minority actors and creators, which can lead to more diverse storylines and perspectives.
Alternatively, Malik depicts a change in representations is evident stating that 'viewers interviewed
for the research praised programmes such as Strictly Come Dancing, The Apprentice and X Factor for
reflecting diversity' and commenting that 'it has become one of the most racially varied forms of
programming today' (2008). Thus, the entertainment industry supports the view that media
representations of minority ethnic groups have improved.
However, this idea can be combatted by the argument that much of this new representation is
nothing more than tokenism, displaying a lack of improvement in this area. For instance, Malik
highlighted research commissioned by Channel 4 (2008) that found that while most white viewers
felt broadcasters were doing a satisfactory job in representing multicultural Britain, all other ethnic
groups felt their performance was 'very poor'. This research found accusations that mainstream
broadcasters were guilty of tokenism and stereotyping, screening exaggerated and extreme
representations of minority communities and failing to reflect modern minority ethnic culture.
Further, Chris Barker (1999) also found that the show EastEnders has been criticised for stereotyping
since the black and Asian characters that occupy marginal roles have been cast as doctors and
shopkeepers. Barker argued that the programme fails to engage with wider structural forms of
racism and portrays black and Asian characters' experience as the product of individual character
traits (fails to recognise or deal with racism in plotlines). Hall (1995) depicts this as an occurrence of
a shift from overt to inferential racism where coverage seems balanced but is based on racist
assumptions and generally supported the argument that it is still rare for black and Asian actors to
receive star billing (giving of the 'star role'). Therefore, the presence of representation of ethnic
minority groups perhaps doesn’t equate to improvement.
The view that media representations of minority ethnic groups have improved has arguably occurred
due to the success of these groups in challenging negative and stereotypical media representations.
One example of this is that, in response to criticism from the Asian American community, the
television network ABC cancelled the show "Good Times" in the early 1980s, which was seen as
perpetuating harmful stereotypes of Asian Americans. Another more modern example is a campaign
called '56 Black Men' that was started by Cephas who is trying to change perceptions of black men.
Using social media as a platform, he posts striking headshots of black men in hoodies. These men are
politicians, directors, teachers - all of them have positive life stories that are irrelevant to the attire
they choose to wear. He states that the campaign "serves as a reminder that for every black man
you see represented doing something negative, there are 56 of us that aren't". Whilst there is no
Evaluate the view that representations of age in the media are based on stereotypes (24 marks)
Representations of children can be seen to be based on stereotypes. For example, one of the more
significant stereotypes is children as active consumers – television commercials portray children as
having a consumer appetite for toys and games. Some family sociologists note that this has led to
the emergence of a new family pressure, ‘pester power’, the power of children to train or
manipulate their parents to spend money on consumer goods that will increase the children’s status
in the eyes of their peers. Similarly, representations of children in sitcoms are often set in happy,
safe, loving family environments and Heintz-Knowles (2002) points out how entertainment TV
almost never shows children grappling with important issues. Its suggested that programming
reflects an adult perspective on children and on their interests/concerns like how children are
motivated by peers and romance and least motivated by school or religious issues, causing them to
engage in anti-social behaviours. In terms of representations of different classifications of children,
Heintz-Knowles depicts how ethnic groups are underrepresented and how girls are twice as likely to
show affection and 60% of boys are more likely to use aggression. Therefore, there is a dominant
stereotypical portrayal of children in the media industry since assumptions have to be made on what
they consider truthful as they are too young to professionally portray this themselves.
Opposingly, research into representations of children can be seen to be less stereotypical as time
goes on and the media advances. Moreover, Postman (1982) argues that the development of
entertainment media from the 1950s has had an effect on 'childhood' as it had not existed as a
concept in earlier historical eras and that the modern idea of childhood has begun to disappear as
children interact more and more with the media. Postman was writing before the invention of the
internet, but his study of the effects of TV on children nevertheless illustrated sociological ideas
about media representations of children. He described ways in which children are prematurely
sexualised in media portrayals and the ways in which the media creates a world in which adults and
children share the same music, sports, language, literature and films. For example, one illustration of
the effects of this lies in the lack of differentiated clothing styles (little girls in high heels and adult
men wearing trainers) and the effects of this on young people's self-concept. Thus, the media's
influential representations of children appear to be moving further away from traditional
stereotypes.
Another way that stereotypes in the media are presented is in youth. A study called Hoodies or Altar
boys (2009) looked at national and regional newspaper content, looking at how stories on teenage
boys were covered. Furthermore, there were more newspaper stories about teens and crime than
about teens and all other subjects put together - terms like thugs, evil, monster, scum and heartless
were commonplace. In a similar vein, Clake found that it is the subcultural groups, such as punks or
chavs, that are often used by the media to represent youth in the contemporary UK which clearly
creates and reinforces an unrepresentative view of youth identity. This suggests that things are the
same as the days of mods and rockers, leaving plenty of time for stereotypes to present dominantly.
Wayne et al.'s (2008) content analysis of 2130 news items across all the main television channels
during May 2006 supports these findings. They found that young people were mainly represented as
a violent threat to society and it was very rare for news items to feature a young person’s
perspective or opinion (only 1% of the time). Moreover, they note that the media only delivers a
one-dimensional picture of youth, one that encourages fear and condemnation rather than
understanding which it distracts from the real problems that young people face in the modern world
such as homelessness, not being able to get onto the housing ladder, unemployment or mental
health and that these might be caused by society’s, or the government’s, failure to take the
,problems of youth seriously. Therefore, representations of youth in the media are based on
stereotypes.
However, representations of youth can also characterised as non-stereotypical. For example, whilst
Osergby (2002) noted a recurring theme of ‘youth as trouble’, he found that media representations
of youth reflect wider cultural developments. Further, the youth were portrayed positively in the
1950s due to a post-war mood of hope and prosperity whereas in the 1970s and 1980s they were
portrayed as violent which seemed to reflect concerns about chaos in society. Similarly, on the basis
of quantitative content analyses of Danish newspapers in 1953–2003, K. Levinsen and C. Wien found
that culture is reported quite frequently in Danish newspapers in regard to representations of youth.
Moreover, their analyses show that young people are now quoted more frequently than before
which they argue reflect the societal changes over the years where especially the youth revolution
during the 1960s and 1970s has contributed to a renewed public attention for young people.
Inevitably, this has led to an increase in exposure of the real-life, complex issues young people face
today such as the recent spate of school documentaries like ‘Educating Essex’ and contemporary
sitcoms like Derry Girls. Wherefore, representations of youth are arguably shifting away from being
based on stereotypes.
The elderly give another alternative insight into stereotypical representations of age in the media.
Further, Age Concern (2000) identified three key media stereotypes of the elderly. Old people were
disproportionately represented as: a burden, mentally challenged and grumpy. Withal, Landis (2002)
argues that the media ignores the complexity of real characters and rather focuses on these
stereotypes - an example being the Victor Meldrew character in One Foot in the Grave who
epitomises the archetypal grumpy old man. Arguably, there are significant gender differences in the
way old people are represented in the media: older men are much more visible in the media than
older women, and older men are much more likely to be associated with high status and work while
older women are generally associated with the family and poverty. Thornton emphasises the
significance of this by suggesting that ageism may be reflected through the under-representation of
middle-aged and elderly women as presenters on television. Thus, media representations of the
elderly are stereotypical.
Alternatively, some would argue that representations of the elderly are no longer based on
stereotypes. There is evidence of the elderly being more positive and involved, presented by Blaike,
in that the grey pound (the purchasing power of elderly people as consumers) is worth £215 billion a
year. Carrigan and Smizgen (2000) suggest that this has led to an increase in positive images of
ageing and positive roles for older people as it gives advertisers the motivation to present the elderly
(their consumers) agreeably. Featherstone and Hepworth (2005) argue that such media images of
ageing can create new identities and suggest that as the population ages, more of these may
emerge. The popularity of 'retro' fashions and comeback tours from bands from the 1970s and
1980s are also trends that help blur the boundaries of the life course, destroying the previous blocks
that stopped old people from accessing things like fashion e.g. Andie Macdowel's "never felt so
powerful" statement in her 60s. Postmodernists contend that the challenging that individuals like
her do of negative stereotypes lead to the entire concept of old age revolutionising. They refer to
this as a time of 'active ageing' when they embrace new opportunities in this time of reflection. A
good example of someone who gains extensive media coverage for her talent and 'active ageing' is
Helen Mirren, showing a more positive representation of older icons in the media. Wherefore, such
positivity leads to a conclusion to be made that media representations of the elderly are no longer
based on stereotypes.
To conclude, I agree with the view that representations of age in the media are majorly based on
stereotypes due to the fact that the stereotypes themselves are so well-known and familiar.
, Ethnicity
Evaluate the view that media representations of minority ethnic groups have improved (24 marks)
One way that media representations of minority ethnic groups can be seen to have improved is
through the entertainment industry. Furthermore, strides towards more accurate representation are
made through initiatives such as the Academy Awards' diversity and inclusion standards that state
that movies must have at least one 'lead or significant supporting actor' from an underrepresented
racial group, for example. Similarly in the UK, Broadcasting Standards Commission indicated that,
between 1999 and 2003, the representation of ethnic minorities in television programming became
more positive and respectful. Chris Barker (1999) cites the good example of this that is EastEnders
which is seen to reflect changes in representations in that it contains a range of black and Asian
characters with significant roles and the community that is portrayed in show can be described as
multi-ethnic. Arguably, these positive strides are viewed in a much broader horizon than just TV and
film in the entertainment industry. For example, the success of Black Panther and Crazy Rich Asians
showed that there is a market for diverse stories and that audiences want to see stories and
characters that reflect the world around them, opening doors for more opportunities for ethnic
minority actors and creators, which can lead to more diverse storylines and perspectives.
Alternatively, Malik depicts a change in representations is evident stating that 'viewers interviewed
for the research praised programmes such as Strictly Come Dancing, The Apprentice and X Factor for
reflecting diversity' and commenting that 'it has become one of the most racially varied forms of
programming today' (2008). Thus, the entertainment industry supports the view that media
representations of minority ethnic groups have improved.
However, this idea can be combatted by the argument that much of this new representation is
nothing more than tokenism, displaying a lack of improvement in this area. For instance, Malik
highlighted research commissioned by Channel 4 (2008) that found that while most white viewers
felt broadcasters were doing a satisfactory job in representing multicultural Britain, all other ethnic
groups felt their performance was 'very poor'. This research found accusations that mainstream
broadcasters were guilty of tokenism and stereotyping, screening exaggerated and extreme
representations of minority communities and failing to reflect modern minority ethnic culture.
Further, Chris Barker (1999) also found that the show EastEnders has been criticised for stereotyping
since the black and Asian characters that occupy marginal roles have been cast as doctors and
shopkeepers. Barker argued that the programme fails to engage with wider structural forms of
racism and portrays black and Asian characters' experience as the product of individual character
traits (fails to recognise or deal with racism in plotlines). Hall (1995) depicts this as an occurrence of
a shift from overt to inferential racism where coverage seems balanced but is based on racist
assumptions and generally supported the argument that it is still rare for black and Asian actors to
receive star billing (giving of the 'star role'). Therefore, the presence of representation of ethnic
minority groups perhaps doesn’t equate to improvement.
The view that media representations of minority ethnic groups have improved has arguably occurred
due to the success of these groups in challenging negative and stereotypical media representations.
One example of this is that, in response to criticism from the Asian American community, the
television network ABC cancelled the show "Good Times" in the early 1980s, which was seen as
perpetuating harmful stereotypes of Asian Americans. Another more modern example is a campaign
called '56 Black Men' that was started by Cephas who is trying to change perceptions of black men.
Using social media as a platform, he posts striking headshots of black men in hoodies. These men are
politicians, directors, teachers - all of them have positive life stories that are irrelevant to the attire
they choose to wear. He states that the campaign "serves as a reminder that for every black man
you see represented doing something negative, there are 56 of us that aren't". Whilst there is no
