AQA PSYCHOLOGY A-LEVEL PAPER 2
2025/2026 ACCURATE SOLUTIONS
Wilhelm \Wundt \- \ANS-- \First \Psychologist
- \First \Lab \in \Germany
- \Experimental \Conditions
- \Structuralism \and \Introspection
Introspection \- \ANS-Person \Gains \knowledge \about \their \mental \state \by \examining \their \conscious \
thoughts \and \feelings
Empiricism \- \ANS-Knowledge \is \derived \from \sensory \experience, \characterised \by \the \use \of \the \
scientific \method
Scientific \Method \- \ANS-The \investigative \methods \that \are:
- \Objective
- \Systematic
- \Reliable
Evaluation \of \Wundt \- \ANS-- \methods \were \unreliable \as \it \relied \on \non-observable
- \Introspection \is \not \accurate \because \people \are \often \unaware \of \are \behaviours
Evaluation \of \the \Scientific \Approach \- \ANS-- \its \objective \and \systematic
- \Rely \on \determinism
- \Self \corrective
- \Create \non-naturalistic \environments
,- \Human \behaviour \is \not \always \observable \to \the \rules \of \science
Classical \Conditioning \- \ANS-Pavlov \- \When \a \neutral \stimulus \is \consistently \paired \with \an \
unconditional \stimulus \so \that \it \takes \on \the \properties \on \the \stimulus \and \is \able \to \produced \a \
conditioned \response
Classical \Conditioning \steps \- \ANS-UCS \-> \UCR
NS \-> \No \Response
UCS+NS \-> \UCR
CS \-> \CR
Features \of \CC \- \ANS-- \If \time \interval \is \too \great \between \conditioning \it \does \not \work
- \CR \will \become \extinct \in \the \absence \of \the \UCS \after \a \while
- \If \extinct \and \paired \again \they \pair \more \quickly \(Spontaneous \Recovery)
- \Stimulus \generalisation, \CR \is \created \to \things \similar \to \CS
Operant \Conditioning \- \ANS-Skinner \- \Learning \through \reinforcement \or \punishment, \a \behaviour \is \
more \likely \if \followed \by \a \desirable \concequence
Positive \Reinforcement \- \ANS-Behaviour \Produces \a \response \that \is \desirable
Negative \Reinforcement \- \ANS-Doing \something \to \stop \unpleasant \response
Reinforcement \- \ANS-Strengthening \a \response
Punishment \- \ANS-An \unpleasant \consequence \following \a \behaviour
Features \of \Classical \Conditioning \- \ANS-- \Scheduling \reinforcement \makes \it \stronger
,- \Punishment
Evaluation \of \Classical \Conditioning \- \ANS-- \Applications \in \treatment \of \phobias
- \Animal \Research \cannot \be \generalised \to \humans \because \they \have \different \needs \to \learn
Evaluation \of \Operant \Conditioning \- \ANS-- \Use \of \experimental \method
- \Animal \Research \cannot \be \generalised \to \humans
Modelling \- \ANS-Individuals \learn \behaviour \be \observing \others
Imitation \- \ANS-Copying \a \models \behaviour
Identification \- \ANS-Individual \adopts \attitudes \and \behaviours \of \a \model \because \they \want \to \be \
like \them
Vicarious \Reinforcement \- \ANS-Individuals \learn \about \the \likely \consequences \by \observing \a \model's \
experiences \and \adjust \their \behaviour \to \obtain \the \same \experience
The \Role \of \the \meditational \Processes \- \ANS-Observer \forms \a \mental \representation \pf \the \
behaviour \displayed \of \the \model \and \the \probable \consequences \it \will \also \happen \to \them
Evaluation \of \Social \Learning \Theory \- \ANS-- \Applications \in \human \behaviour
- \research \support \(Bandura)
- \Problems \with \causality, \it \may \not \be \observing \but \rather \people \already \have \this \a \try \to \find \
people \similar
- \Approach \disregards \other \potential \influences \like \gender
Bandura \Procedures \- \ANS-Children \were \exposed \to \aggressive \or \non \aggressive \models \interacting \
with \a \bobo \doll
, Bandura \Findings \- \ANS-Children \who \had \aggressive \models \were \aggressive \to \the \doll
Children \who \had \non-aggressive \models \were \not \aggressive \to \the \doll
Cognitive \- \ANS-Refers \to \mental \processes \such \as \perception, \memory \and \reasoning
Schema \- \ANS-A \cognitive \framework \that \helps \us \organise \and \interpret \information
Why \are \Schemas \useful? \- \ANS-They \help \us \make \sense \of \new \information \by \filling \in \gaps
Theoretical \Models \- \ANS-Pictorial \representations \of \cognitive \processes \based \on \research \evidence
Computer \Model \- \ANS-Computer \analogy \of \input \process \storage \output \to \represent \the \human \
cognitive
Cognitive \Neuroscience \- \ANS-non-invasive \imaging \techniques \such \as \PET \and \fMRI \scans \to \help \
psychologists \understand \how \the \brain \works
PET \- \ANS-Positron \emission \tomography
fMRI \- \ANS-Functional \Magnetic \Resonance \imaging
Evaluation \of \the \Cognitive \Approach \- \ANS-- \Applications \in \social \cognition, \dysfunctional \behaviour
- \Scientific
- \Computer \models \are \to \simplistic \for \a \human \mind, \and \at \the \same \time \suggest \that \we \never \
forget \or \never \make \mistakes
- \ignores \emotion \and \motivation \(tells \us \how \not \why)
- \Lack \ecological \validity
2025/2026 ACCURATE SOLUTIONS
Wilhelm \Wundt \- \ANS-- \First \Psychologist
- \First \Lab \in \Germany
- \Experimental \Conditions
- \Structuralism \and \Introspection
Introspection \- \ANS-Person \Gains \knowledge \about \their \mental \state \by \examining \their \conscious \
thoughts \and \feelings
Empiricism \- \ANS-Knowledge \is \derived \from \sensory \experience, \characterised \by \the \use \of \the \
scientific \method
Scientific \Method \- \ANS-The \investigative \methods \that \are:
- \Objective
- \Systematic
- \Reliable
Evaluation \of \Wundt \- \ANS-- \methods \were \unreliable \as \it \relied \on \non-observable
- \Introspection \is \not \accurate \because \people \are \often \unaware \of \are \behaviours
Evaluation \of \the \Scientific \Approach \- \ANS-- \its \objective \and \systematic
- \Rely \on \determinism
- \Self \corrective
- \Create \non-naturalistic \environments
,- \Human \behaviour \is \not \always \observable \to \the \rules \of \science
Classical \Conditioning \- \ANS-Pavlov \- \When \a \neutral \stimulus \is \consistently \paired \with \an \
unconditional \stimulus \so \that \it \takes \on \the \properties \on \the \stimulus \and \is \able \to \produced \a \
conditioned \response
Classical \Conditioning \steps \- \ANS-UCS \-> \UCR
NS \-> \No \Response
UCS+NS \-> \UCR
CS \-> \CR
Features \of \CC \- \ANS-- \If \time \interval \is \too \great \between \conditioning \it \does \not \work
- \CR \will \become \extinct \in \the \absence \of \the \UCS \after \a \while
- \If \extinct \and \paired \again \they \pair \more \quickly \(Spontaneous \Recovery)
- \Stimulus \generalisation, \CR \is \created \to \things \similar \to \CS
Operant \Conditioning \- \ANS-Skinner \- \Learning \through \reinforcement \or \punishment, \a \behaviour \is \
more \likely \if \followed \by \a \desirable \concequence
Positive \Reinforcement \- \ANS-Behaviour \Produces \a \response \that \is \desirable
Negative \Reinforcement \- \ANS-Doing \something \to \stop \unpleasant \response
Reinforcement \- \ANS-Strengthening \a \response
Punishment \- \ANS-An \unpleasant \consequence \following \a \behaviour
Features \of \Classical \Conditioning \- \ANS-- \Scheduling \reinforcement \makes \it \stronger
,- \Punishment
Evaluation \of \Classical \Conditioning \- \ANS-- \Applications \in \treatment \of \phobias
- \Animal \Research \cannot \be \generalised \to \humans \because \they \have \different \needs \to \learn
Evaluation \of \Operant \Conditioning \- \ANS-- \Use \of \experimental \method
- \Animal \Research \cannot \be \generalised \to \humans
Modelling \- \ANS-Individuals \learn \behaviour \be \observing \others
Imitation \- \ANS-Copying \a \models \behaviour
Identification \- \ANS-Individual \adopts \attitudes \and \behaviours \of \a \model \because \they \want \to \be \
like \them
Vicarious \Reinforcement \- \ANS-Individuals \learn \about \the \likely \consequences \by \observing \a \model's \
experiences \and \adjust \their \behaviour \to \obtain \the \same \experience
The \Role \of \the \meditational \Processes \- \ANS-Observer \forms \a \mental \representation \pf \the \
behaviour \displayed \of \the \model \and \the \probable \consequences \it \will \also \happen \to \them
Evaluation \of \Social \Learning \Theory \- \ANS-- \Applications \in \human \behaviour
- \research \support \(Bandura)
- \Problems \with \causality, \it \may \not \be \observing \but \rather \people \already \have \this \a \try \to \find \
people \similar
- \Approach \disregards \other \potential \influences \like \gender
Bandura \Procedures \- \ANS-Children \were \exposed \to \aggressive \or \non \aggressive \models \interacting \
with \a \bobo \doll
, Bandura \Findings \- \ANS-Children \who \had \aggressive \models \were \aggressive \to \the \doll
Children \who \had \non-aggressive \models \were \not \aggressive \to \the \doll
Cognitive \- \ANS-Refers \to \mental \processes \such \as \perception, \memory \and \reasoning
Schema \- \ANS-A \cognitive \framework \that \helps \us \organise \and \interpret \information
Why \are \Schemas \useful? \- \ANS-They \help \us \make \sense \of \new \information \by \filling \in \gaps
Theoretical \Models \- \ANS-Pictorial \representations \of \cognitive \processes \based \on \research \evidence
Computer \Model \- \ANS-Computer \analogy \of \input \process \storage \output \to \represent \the \human \
cognitive
Cognitive \Neuroscience \- \ANS-non-invasive \imaging \techniques \such \as \PET \and \fMRI \scans \to \help \
psychologists \understand \how \the \brain \works
PET \- \ANS-Positron \emission \tomography
fMRI \- \ANS-Functional \Magnetic \Resonance \imaging
Evaluation \of \the \Cognitive \Approach \- \ANS-- \Applications \in \social \cognition, \dysfunctional \behaviour
- \Scientific
- \Computer \models \are \to \simplistic \for \a \human \mind, \and \at \the \same \time \suggest \that \we \never \
forget \or \never \make \mistakes
- \ignores \emotion \and \motivation \(tells \us \how \not \why)
- \Lack \ecological \validity
