Question 9: Chapter 1; 4; 5
Discuss Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman’s (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2019)
stress and coping paradigm and, in view of this paradigm explain age and individual
differences in the experience and handling of stress. (20)
Chapter 1
1.2: Issues in Studying Development and Aging
*The Forces of Development
Developmentalists typically consider four interactive forces:
1. Biological forces include all genetic and 2. Psychological forces include all internal
health-related factors that affect perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and
development. personality factors that affect
Examples of biological forces include development.
menopause, facial wrinkling, and Collectively, psychological forces
changes in the major organ systems. provide the characteristics we notice
about people that make them
individuals.
3. Sociocultural forces include 4. Life-cycle forces reflect differences in
interpersonal, societal, cultural, and how the same event or combination of
ethnic factors that affect development. biological, psychological, and
Sociocultural forces provide the overall sociocultural forces affects people at
contexts in which we develop. different points in their lives.
Life-cycle forces provide the context for
the developmental differences of
interest in adult development and
aging.
One useful way to organize the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces on human
development is with the biopsychosocial framework.
Together with life-cycle forces, the biopsychosocial framework provides a complete
overview of the shapers of human development.
Each of us is a product of a unique combination of these forces.
Even identical twins growing up in the same family eventually have their own unique friends,
partners, occupations, and so on because each experiences the combination of forces
differently.
*Interrelations among the Forces: Developmental Influence
All the forces we have discussed combine to create people’s developmental experiences.
One way to consider these combinations is to consider the degree to which they are
common or unique to people of specific ages.
An important concept in this approach is cohort.
A cohort is a group of people born at the same point or specific time span in historical time.
Based on this approach, Baltes identifies three sets of influences that interact to produce
developmental change over the lifespan:
normative age-graded influences,
normative history- graded influences,
, and non-normative influences.
Normative age-graded influences are Normative history-graded influences
experiences caused by biological, are events that most people in a
psychological, and sociocultural forces specific culture experience at the same
that occur to most people of a time.
particular age. These events may be biological (such as
Some of these, such as puberty, epidemics), psychological (such as
menarche, and menopause, are particular stereotypes), or sociocultural
biological. (such as changing attitudes toward
These normative biological events sexuality).
usually indicate a major change in a Normative history-graded influences
person’s life; for example, menopause often give a generation its unique
is an indicator that a woman can no identity, such as the baby-boom
longer bear children without medical generation, generation X (people born
intervention. roughly between 1965 and 1975), and
Normative psychological events include the millennial generation (sometimes
focusing on certain concerns at called the Echo Boomers or generation
different points in adulthood, such as a Y, born between 1979 and 1994).
middle-aged person’s concern with These influences can have a profound
socializing the younger generation. effect across all generations.
Other normative age-graded influences
involve sociocultural forces, such as the
time when first marriage occurs and
the age at which someone retires.
Normative age-graded influences
typically correspond to major time-
marked events, which are often
ritualised.
These events provide the most
convenient way to judge where we are
on our social clock
Non-normative influences are random For example, history-graded influences
or rare events that may be important may produce generational differences
for a specific individual but are not and conflict; parents’ and
experienced by most people. grandparents’ experiences as young
These may be favourable events, such adults in the 1960s and 1970s (before
as winning the lottery or an election, or AIDS, smartphones, and global
unfavourable ones, such as an accident terrorism) may have little to do with
or layoff. the complex issues faced by today’s
The unpredictability of these events young adults.
makes them unique. In turn, these interactions have
Such events can turn one’s life upside important implications for
down overnight. understanding differences that appear
Life-cycle forces are especially key in to be age related.
understanding the importance of That is, differences may be explained in
normative age-graded, normative terms of different life experiences
history-graded, and non-normative (normative history-graded influences)
influences. rather than as an integral part of aging
itself (normative age-graded
influences).
Discuss Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman’s (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2019)
stress and coping paradigm and, in view of this paradigm explain age and individual
differences in the experience and handling of stress. (20)
Chapter 1
1.2: Issues in Studying Development and Aging
*The Forces of Development
Developmentalists typically consider four interactive forces:
1. Biological forces include all genetic and 2. Psychological forces include all internal
health-related factors that affect perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and
development. personality factors that affect
Examples of biological forces include development.
menopause, facial wrinkling, and Collectively, psychological forces
changes in the major organ systems. provide the characteristics we notice
about people that make them
individuals.
3. Sociocultural forces include 4. Life-cycle forces reflect differences in
interpersonal, societal, cultural, and how the same event or combination of
ethnic factors that affect development. biological, psychological, and
Sociocultural forces provide the overall sociocultural forces affects people at
contexts in which we develop. different points in their lives.
Life-cycle forces provide the context for
the developmental differences of
interest in adult development and
aging.
One useful way to organize the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces on human
development is with the biopsychosocial framework.
Together with life-cycle forces, the biopsychosocial framework provides a complete
overview of the shapers of human development.
Each of us is a product of a unique combination of these forces.
Even identical twins growing up in the same family eventually have their own unique friends,
partners, occupations, and so on because each experiences the combination of forces
differently.
*Interrelations among the Forces: Developmental Influence
All the forces we have discussed combine to create people’s developmental experiences.
One way to consider these combinations is to consider the degree to which they are
common or unique to people of specific ages.
An important concept in this approach is cohort.
A cohort is a group of people born at the same point or specific time span in historical time.
Based on this approach, Baltes identifies three sets of influences that interact to produce
developmental change over the lifespan:
normative age-graded influences,
normative history- graded influences,
, and non-normative influences.
Normative age-graded influences are Normative history-graded influences
experiences caused by biological, are events that most people in a
psychological, and sociocultural forces specific culture experience at the same
that occur to most people of a time.
particular age. These events may be biological (such as
Some of these, such as puberty, epidemics), psychological (such as
menarche, and menopause, are particular stereotypes), or sociocultural
biological. (such as changing attitudes toward
These normative biological events sexuality).
usually indicate a major change in a Normative history-graded influences
person’s life; for example, menopause often give a generation its unique
is an indicator that a woman can no identity, such as the baby-boom
longer bear children without medical generation, generation X (people born
intervention. roughly between 1965 and 1975), and
Normative psychological events include the millennial generation (sometimes
focusing on certain concerns at called the Echo Boomers or generation
different points in adulthood, such as a Y, born between 1979 and 1994).
middle-aged person’s concern with These influences can have a profound
socializing the younger generation. effect across all generations.
Other normative age-graded influences
involve sociocultural forces, such as the
time when first marriage occurs and
the age at which someone retires.
Normative age-graded influences
typically correspond to major time-
marked events, which are often
ritualised.
These events provide the most
convenient way to judge where we are
on our social clock
Non-normative influences are random For example, history-graded influences
or rare events that may be important may produce generational differences
for a specific individual but are not and conflict; parents’ and
experienced by most people. grandparents’ experiences as young
These may be favourable events, such adults in the 1960s and 1970s (before
as winning the lottery or an election, or AIDS, smartphones, and global
unfavourable ones, such as an accident terrorism) may have little to do with
or layoff. the complex issues faced by today’s
The unpredictability of these events young adults.
makes them unique. In turn, these interactions have
Such events can turn one’s life upside important implications for
down overnight. understanding differences that appear
Life-cycle forces are especially key in to be age related.
understanding the importance of That is, differences may be explained in
normative age-graded, normative terms of different life experiences
history-graded, and non-normative (normative history-graded influences)
influences. rather than as an integral part of aging
itself (normative age-graded
influences).
