, Chapter 1 – Introduction
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter students should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of a speech community.
2. Explain the goals and methodologies of ethnolinguists.
3. Explain the goals and methodologies of sociolinguists.
4. Describe the similarities and differences between ethnolinguistic and
sociolinguistic approaches to communicative behavior.
5. Define discourse and understand its importance in the study of interaction.
6. Explain what language ideologies are and how they are connected to language
use.
Chapter Overview
This chapter introduces the student to the basic connections between language, identity,
and ideology as well as some methodologies to explore these connections. The chapter
begins by describing the difference between situational, social, and cultural meanings, as
well as stressing the importance of context and cultural models on communicative
behavior. Next, the author introduces the student to the ideas of speech community and
speech network, noting the differences between the two notions and how both affect
language use. The different levels of linguistic pressures and control in dense and weak
social networks are also addressed. Following this, students are presented with the basic
assumptions, goals, and methodologies involved in ethnolinguistics, sociolinguistics and
language variation studies, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis. Finally, the
chapter defines language ideologies and gives basic background information about the
dissemination and effects of language ideologies.
Technical Terms: anthropologist, Critical Discourse Analysis, cultural meanings,
cultural model, discourse, discourse analysis, ethnographic, ethnography of
communication, ethnolinguist, ethnolinguistic approach, language ideologies, linguist,
linguistic variation, situational meanings, social meanings, sociolinguistic approach,
sociolinguistics, speech community, speech network
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
Speech Communities
Ethnolinguistics
Sociolinguistics
Discourse
Copyright © 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1
, Language Ideologies
II. Plan of the Book
Discussion Questions
1. Labov states that members of speech communities have shared language norms and
attitudes. Has a member of your speech community ever corrected your language use, or
have you ever corrected someone else? What do these corrections reveal about the norms
and attitudes of your speech community?
2. Which variables in your own speech are tied to certain aspects of your identity? For
example, are there any things you say (or ways that you say them) that connect to your
geographical region, gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, religion, political
orientation, profession, etc.?
3. Do you think your speech changes based on the situation—what you are doing, where
you are, or who you are with? Does it remain the same? If it does change, in what ways
does it vary?
4. Brainstorm some things that people “should” and “should not” do with language. What
do the ideas generated in the brainstorming session reveal about the language ideologies
of the class or the larger community?
Research Questions
1. Observe coworkers communicating at work. Write down any specialized terms you
hear the employees use. Write an essay in which you describe the jargon used in that
workplace setting and reflect upon the social meanings of those terms.
2. Linguist Penelope Eckert has posited that there are three waves of variation studies in
sociolinguistics. Read her article on this subject and write an essay which compares and
contrasts the three approaches to linguistic variation that she describes.
3. Choose a social factor that affects language use—gender, race, age, socioeconomic
class, etc.—and investigate studies that examine that factor. Write a review of the
literature you find that discusses the linguistic effects of that particular social factor.
Other Readings:
Gumperz, John J. and Dell Hymes (Eds.). 1986. Directions in Sociolinguistics: The
Ethnography of Communication. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Ltd.
Hymes, Dell. 1974. Foundations of Socio-Linguistics. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Copyright © 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2
, Speech Communities and Social Networks
Hymes, Dell. 1986. Models of interaction of language and social life. In Directions in
Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication, ed. J. Gumperz and D. Hymes.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Ltd.
Labov, William. 1966. The survey of the Lower East Side. Ch. 6, The Social
Stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics, pp. 154-204.
Labov, William. 1972. The linguistic consequences of being a lame. Ch. 7, Language in
the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, pp. 255-292.
Labov, William. 1972. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Milroy, Leslie. 1980. Language and Social Networks. Oxford: Blackwell.
Milroy, Leslie. 2002. Social networks. In The Handbook of Language Variation and
Change, ed. J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill and N. Schilling-Estes. Oxford: Blackwell, pp.
549-571.
Milroy, Leslie and James Milroy. 1992. Social network and social class: Toward an
integrated sociolinguistic model. Language in Society 21:1-26
Patrick, Peter. 2002. The speech community. In The Handbook of Language Variation
and Change, ed. J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill and N. Schilling-Estes. Oxford: Blackwell
Ethnolinguistics
Hymes, Dell. 1980. Language in Education: Ethnolinguistic Essays. Language and
Ethnography Series, 1. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Sociolinguistic Variation
Eckert, Penelope. 2002. Linguistic Variation as Social Practice: The Linguistic
Construction of Identity in Belten High. Oxford: Blackwell.
Eckert, Penelope and John R. Rickford (Eds.). 2001. Style and Sociolinguistic Variation.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Labov, William (Ed.). 1980. Locating Language in Time and Space. New York:
Academic Press.
Lucas, Ceil, Robert Bayley, and Clayton Valli. 2001. Sociolinguistic Variation in
American Sign Language. Wasihngton, DC: Galludet University Press.
Copyright © 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 3
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter students should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of a speech community.
2. Explain the goals and methodologies of ethnolinguists.
3. Explain the goals and methodologies of sociolinguists.
4. Describe the similarities and differences between ethnolinguistic and
sociolinguistic approaches to communicative behavior.
5. Define discourse and understand its importance in the study of interaction.
6. Explain what language ideologies are and how they are connected to language
use.
Chapter Overview
This chapter introduces the student to the basic connections between language, identity,
and ideology as well as some methodologies to explore these connections. The chapter
begins by describing the difference between situational, social, and cultural meanings, as
well as stressing the importance of context and cultural models on communicative
behavior. Next, the author introduces the student to the ideas of speech community and
speech network, noting the differences between the two notions and how both affect
language use. The different levels of linguistic pressures and control in dense and weak
social networks are also addressed. Following this, students are presented with the basic
assumptions, goals, and methodologies involved in ethnolinguistics, sociolinguistics and
language variation studies, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis. Finally, the
chapter defines language ideologies and gives basic background information about the
dissemination and effects of language ideologies.
Technical Terms: anthropologist, Critical Discourse Analysis, cultural meanings,
cultural model, discourse, discourse analysis, ethnographic, ethnography of
communication, ethnolinguist, ethnolinguistic approach, language ideologies, linguist,
linguistic variation, situational meanings, social meanings, sociolinguistic approach,
sociolinguistics, speech community, speech network
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
Speech Communities
Ethnolinguistics
Sociolinguistics
Discourse
Copyright © 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1
, Language Ideologies
II. Plan of the Book
Discussion Questions
1. Labov states that members of speech communities have shared language norms and
attitudes. Has a member of your speech community ever corrected your language use, or
have you ever corrected someone else? What do these corrections reveal about the norms
and attitudes of your speech community?
2. Which variables in your own speech are tied to certain aspects of your identity? For
example, are there any things you say (or ways that you say them) that connect to your
geographical region, gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, religion, political
orientation, profession, etc.?
3. Do you think your speech changes based on the situation—what you are doing, where
you are, or who you are with? Does it remain the same? If it does change, in what ways
does it vary?
4. Brainstorm some things that people “should” and “should not” do with language. What
do the ideas generated in the brainstorming session reveal about the language ideologies
of the class or the larger community?
Research Questions
1. Observe coworkers communicating at work. Write down any specialized terms you
hear the employees use. Write an essay in which you describe the jargon used in that
workplace setting and reflect upon the social meanings of those terms.
2. Linguist Penelope Eckert has posited that there are three waves of variation studies in
sociolinguistics. Read her article on this subject and write an essay which compares and
contrasts the three approaches to linguistic variation that she describes.
3. Choose a social factor that affects language use—gender, race, age, socioeconomic
class, etc.—and investigate studies that examine that factor. Write a review of the
literature you find that discusses the linguistic effects of that particular social factor.
Other Readings:
Gumperz, John J. and Dell Hymes (Eds.). 1986. Directions in Sociolinguistics: The
Ethnography of Communication. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Ltd.
Hymes, Dell. 1974. Foundations of Socio-Linguistics. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Copyright © 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2
, Speech Communities and Social Networks
Hymes, Dell. 1986. Models of interaction of language and social life. In Directions in
Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication, ed. J. Gumperz and D. Hymes.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Ltd.
Labov, William. 1966. The survey of the Lower East Side. Ch. 6, The Social
Stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics, pp. 154-204.
Labov, William. 1972. The linguistic consequences of being a lame. Ch. 7, Language in
the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, pp. 255-292.
Labov, William. 1972. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Milroy, Leslie. 1980. Language and Social Networks. Oxford: Blackwell.
Milroy, Leslie. 2002. Social networks. In The Handbook of Language Variation and
Change, ed. J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill and N. Schilling-Estes. Oxford: Blackwell, pp.
549-571.
Milroy, Leslie and James Milroy. 1992. Social network and social class: Toward an
integrated sociolinguistic model. Language in Society 21:1-26
Patrick, Peter. 2002. The speech community. In The Handbook of Language Variation
and Change, ed. J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill and N. Schilling-Estes. Oxford: Blackwell
Ethnolinguistics
Hymes, Dell. 1980. Language in Education: Ethnolinguistic Essays. Language and
Ethnography Series, 1. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Sociolinguistic Variation
Eckert, Penelope. 2002. Linguistic Variation as Social Practice: The Linguistic
Construction of Identity in Belten High. Oxford: Blackwell.
Eckert, Penelope and John R. Rickford (Eds.). 2001. Style and Sociolinguistic Variation.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Labov, William (Ed.). 1980. Locating Language in Time and Space. New York:
Academic Press.
Lucas, Ceil, Robert Bayley, and Clayton Valli. 2001. Sociolinguistic Variation in
American Sign Language. Wasihngton, DC: Galludet University Press.
Copyright © 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 3
