Empire and the emergence of world powers 1870 - 1919
Why was imperialism a significant force for late 19th-century Europe?
Imperialism was a profound and multifaceted force in late 19th-century Europe, driven by a complex interplay of
economic, political, and social motives, and facilitated by technological advancements. This period, known as ‘New
Imperialism’, differed from earlier expansion in its geographic focus and the emergence of new imperial powers
Economic and political motives for imperial expansion:
Economic Motives:
● The Industrial Revolution led to a massive increase in mass-produced goods, creating an urgent need for new
sources of raw materials (such as cotton, copper, rubber, and tin from Africa and Asia) and new markets to sell
these products. Entrepreneurs sought new places to invest their wealth.
● Britain, initially "The Workshop of the World," began facing growing competition from industrializing European
rivals (like Germany and France) and the USA.
● The "Long Depression" (1873–1896), a period of price deflation where production outstripped demand,
intensified this competition, pressuring governments to secure guaranteed overseas markets.
● British economist John Hobson argued that imperial expansion was a "necessity for a nation with our great and
growing powers of production" for new markets and investment outlets, especially as Britain's "virtual monopoly"
ended.
Political Motives:
● By 1871, the political map of Europe was largely settled, meaning little opportunity for expansion within Europe
itself. Countries sought overseas territories to enhance their wealth, power, prestige, and influence.
● The late 19th century saw a surge in nationalism. Newly unified states like Germany and Italy wanted to
establish their standing, while France aimed to recover from its humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
(1870–71).
● Britain proudly boasted of its vast empire and maintained a powerful navy through the "two power standard".
● Overseas possessions became symbols of national pride. French politicians like Paul Doumer articulated a
"destiny" to spread French culture and religion, likening it to Rome civilising barbarians.
● Imperialism was also used as a social policy by leaders like Jules Ferry (France) and Joseph Chamberlain
(Britain) to divert popular attention from domestic social and economic inequalities, by promising finance for
social reform and steady employment, thus uniting people behind a common national aim.
, ● Strategic control of key regions was another driver; Britain's reluctant takeover of Egypt in 1882 to protect the
Suez Canal (which greatly shortened journeys to India and the Far East) encouraged other nations to seek
African territory.
The emergence of ‘New Imperialism’: This new wave of imperialism from 1871 to 1914 had distinct characteristics:
Geographic Scope:
Unlike earlier imperialism focused on the Americas, ‘New Imperialism’ centered on Africa and Asia. Explorers like David
Livingstone (Nile source) revealed Africa's abundant mineral and raw material wealth (rubber, tin), attracting heavy
funding from governments like Britain. The crumbling Chinese Empire also offered opportunities for vital trade links.
Maintaining Peaceful Relations:
Despite rivalries, there was a conscious effort to prevent the constant warfare of earlier imperial periods. The Treaty of
Berlin (1885), for instance, laid down rules for African expansion to avoid confrontation. In China, imperial nations
maintained discrete areas of influence and even collaborated against the Chinese.
New Imperial Countries:
Imperial expansion was no longer exclusive to traditional powers like Britain and France. Massive industrial growth
propelled the US to seek control in Central/South America and trading rights in Asia, necessitating a strong navy and
overseas bases. Japan underwent its own industrial and military revolutions, emerging as a power seeking influence in
Asia, leading to conflict with Russia and rivalry with the USA.
Enabling Factors:
Social and technological advancements made this expansion possible. Medical breakthroughs reduced health risks in
Africa, allowing explorers to venture inland. Technological innovations in iron and steel production (e.g., Henry Bessemer's
system) facilitated the development of railways and steamships. Iron-hulled, steam-driven ships could navigate African
rivers, providing easier access to the interior. An extensive telegraph network improved communications, making it easier
to administer and control vast overseas possessions.
Justifications:
European nations justified their actions through the abolition of slavery (arguing a moral duty to end African practices)
and the prevalent theory of racial superiority. Influenced by misinterpretations of Darwinism, many Europeans believed
they were racially superior and had a "duty to bring order, stability and civilisation" to "pagan" Africans and Asians
(Livingstone's "three 'Cs': commerce, Christianity and civilisation"). Paul Leroy-Beaulieu argued that "civilised people of the
west have a duty to spread knowledge". These justifications often masked motives of self-interest and exploitation.
Nature and purpose of the ‘Scramble for Africa’:
In 1870, only 10% of Africa was under European control, primarily coastal areas. However, as exploration unveiled Africa's
interior wealth and medical advancements reduced dangers, the "scramble for Africa" intensified in the last quarter of the
19th century. By 1900, over 90% of the continent was controlled by European nations.
● Britain's focus was initially on protecting vital Indian Ocean trade routes (Egypt, South Africa). The discovery of
gold and diamonds in the Transvaal spurred rapid acquisition of mineral-rich areas, particularly in Southern and
, East Africa, to prevent rivals like France and Germany from seizing them. Cecil Rhodes envisioned a
Cairo-to-Cape railway to reinforce commercial gains
● France focused on West and North-West Africa, expanding from existing outposts in Senegal and Algeria,
seeking raw materials like palm oil and timber, and new markets. This expansion was also vital for restoring
national prestige after the Franco-Prussian War defeat.
● Belgium's King Leopold II, determined to enhance his country's prestige and his personal wealth, claimed the
enormous Congo basin, exploiting its raw rubber through brutal forced labor and extreme cruelty..
● Portugal extended its long-standing claims to Angola and Mozambique, keen not to be left behind.
● Germany, unified in 1871, entered the "scramble" later. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initially prioritised national
security, but pressure from industrialists led Germany to acquire territories like Kamerun and German East
Africa. Many German colonies were acquired late and were less profitable, serving more as symbols of national
pride.
The "scramble" rapidly became a "mad rush" for territory, often regardless of its potential value, simply to prevent rivals
from gaining it. It became predominantly an issue of national pride and prestige.
Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion in Britain, France and Germany:
Public support for imperialism varied but was generally strong, fueled by rising nationalism.
● Britain: With an already vast empire, the British were accustomed to overseas influence. National pride and
power were heavily stressed through compulsory state education (maps of empire in classrooms, promoting
loyalty), newspapers (owned by pro-imperialists, publishing exaggerated stories of foreign lands and British
heroes "civilising savages"), and popular literature (Rudyard Kipling's Kim justified British rule in India, children's
magazines promoted patriotism). Everyday items and music halls also promoted positive imperialistic images.
The abolition of slavery and the "white man's burden" narrative provided a moral justification for actions
motivated by self-interest. Despite some opposition (e.g., John Hobson, anti-Boer War movements), the majority
of the public appeared to support imperialism, as evidenced by election results.
● France: The government actively encouraged support to restore national prestige lost after the Franco-Prussian
War. The state education system fostered patriotism, teaching children about France's unique and superior role
in spreading its culture globally. The government highlighted the social, political, and economic advantages of
the empire, arguing it would fund social reform and improve working-class conditions. Businesses also paid
newspapers to promote these benefits. The concept of "superior races" having a "responsibility to civilise them,"
articulated by politicians like Jules Ferry, resonated with the prevailing racial ideologies.
● Germany: As a newly unified nation (1871), the German government initially hesitated but later used
imperialism to foster national unity among its diverse population. They stressed the economic advantages
(access to raw materials and markets) and promoted national pride. Organisations like the Colonial Society and
the Navy League were established to gain public support. German missionaries also played a role, providing
information and connections under the guise of "bringing Christianity to 'heathen' populations". Nationalist
sentiments and Germany's "right and responsibility" to expand were promoted through newspapers, literature,
art, and postcards.
Why was imperialism a significant force for late 19th-century Europe?
Imperialism was a profound and multifaceted force in late 19th-century Europe, driven by a complex interplay of
economic, political, and social motives, and facilitated by technological advancements. This period, known as ‘New
Imperialism’, differed from earlier expansion in its geographic focus and the emergence of new imperial powers
Economic and political motives for imperial expansion:
Economic Motives:
● The Industrial Revolution led to a massive increase in mass-produced goods, creating an urgent need for new
sources of raw materials (such as cotton, copper, rubber, and tin from Africa and Asia) and new markets to sell
these products. Entrepreneurs sought new places to invest their wealth.
● Britain, initially "The Workshop of the World," began facing growing competition from industrializing European
rivals (like Germany and France) and the USA.
● The "Long Depression" (1873–1896), a period of price deflation where production outstripped demand,
intensified this competition, pressuring governments to secure guaranteed overseas markets.
● British economist John Hobson argued that imperial expansion was a "necessity for a nation with our great and
growing powers of production" for new markets and investment outlets, especially as Britain's "virtual monopoly"
ended.
Political Motives:
● By 1871, the political map of Europe was largely settled, meaning little opportunity for expansion within Europe
itself. Countries sought overseas territories to enhance their wealth, power, prestige, and influence.
● The late 19th century saw a surge in nationalism. Newly unified states like Germany and Italy wanted to
establish their standing, while France aimed to recover from its humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
(1870–71).
● Britain proudly boasted of its vast empire and maintained a powerful navy through the "two power standard".
● Overseas possessions became symbols of national pride. French politicians like Paul Doumer articulated a
"destiny" to spread French culture and religion, likening it to Rome civilising barbarians.
● Imperialism was also used as a social policy by leaders like Jules Ferry (France) and Joseph Chamberlain
(Britain) to divert popular attention from domestic social and economic inequalities, by promising finance for
social reform and steady employment, thus uniting people behind a common national aim.
, ● Strategic control of key regions was another driver; Britain's reluctant takeover of Egypt in 1882 to protect the
Suez Canal (which greatly shortened journeys to India and the Far East) encouraged other nations to seek
African territory.
The emergence of ‘New Imperialism’: This new wave of imperialism from 1871 to 1914 had distinct characteristics:
Geographic Scope:
Unlike earlier imperialism focused on the Americas, ‘New Imperialism’ centered on Africa and Asia. Explorers like David
Livingstone (Nile source) revealed Africa's abundant mineral and raw material wealth (rubber, tin), attracting heavy
funding from governments like Britain. The crumbling Chinese Empire also offered opportunities for vital trade links.
Maintaining Peaceful Relations:
Despite rivalries, there was a conscious effort to prevent the constant warfare of earlier imperial periods. The Treaty of
Berlin (1885), for instance, laid down rules for African expansion to avoid confrontation. In China, imperial nations
maintained discrete areas of influence and even collaborated against the Chinese.
New Imperial Countries:
Imperial expansion was no longer exclusive to traditional powers like Britain and France. Massive industrial growth
propelled the US to seek control in Central/South America and trading rights in Asia, necessitating a strong navy and
overseas bases. Japan underwent its own industrial and military revolutions, emerging as a power seeking influence in
Asia, leading to conflict with Russia and rivalry with the USA.
Enabling Factors:
Social and technological advancements made this expansion possible. Medical breakthroughs reduced health risks in
Africa, allowing explorers to venture inland. Technological innovations in iron and steel production (e.g., Henry Bessemer's
system) facilitated the development of railways and steamships. Iron-hulled, steam-driven ships could navigate African
rivers, providing easier access to the interior. An extensive telegraph network improved communications, making it easier
to administer and control vast overseas possessions.
Justifications:
European nations justified their actions through the abolition of slavery (arguing a moral duty to end African practices)
and the prevalent theory of racial superiority. Influenced by misinterpretations of Darwinism, many Europeans believed
they were racially superior and had a "duty to bring order, stability and civilisation" to "pagan" Africans and Asians
(Livingstone's "three 'Cs': commerce, Christianity and civilisation"). Paul Leroy-Beaulieu argued that "civilised people of the
west have a duty to spread knowledge". These justifications often masked motives of self-interest and exploitation.
Nature and purpose of the ‘Scramble for Africa’:
In 1870, only 10% of Africa was under European control, primarily coastal areas. However, as exploration unveiled Africa's
interior wealth and medical advancements reduced dangers, the "scramble for Africa" intensified in the last quarter of the
19th century. By 1900, over 90% of the continent was controlled by European nations.
● Britain's focus was initially on protecting vital Indian Ocean trade routes (Egypt, South Africa). The discovery of
gold and diamonds in the Transvaal spurred rapid acquisition of mineral-rich areas, particularly in Southern and
, East Africa, to prevent rivals like France and Germany from seizing them. Cecil Rhodes envisioned a
Cairo-to-Cape railway to reinforce commercial gains
● France focused on West and North-West Africa, expanding from existing outposts in Senegal and Algeria,
seeking raw materials like palm oil and timber, and new markets. This expansion was also vital for restoring
national prestige after the Franco-Prussian War defeat.
● Belgium's King Leopold II, determined to enhance his country's prestige and his personal wealth, claimed the
enormous Congo basin, exploiting its raw rubber through brutal forced labor and extreme cruelty..
● Portugal extended its long-standing claims to Angola and Mozambique, keen not to be left behind.
● Germany, unified in 1871, entered the "scramble" later. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initially prioritised national
security, but pressure from industrialists led Germany to acquire territories like Kamerun and German East
Africa. Many German colonies were acquired late and were less profitable, serving more as symbols of national
pride.
The "scramble" rapidly became a "mad rush" for territory, often regardless of its potential value, simply to prevent rivals
from gaining it. It became predominantly an issue of national pride and prestige.
Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion in Britain, France and Germany:
Public support for imperialism varied but was generally strong, fueled by rising nationalism.
● Britain: With an already vast empire, the British were accustomed to overseas influence. National pride and
power were heavily stressed through compulsory state education (maps of empire in classrooms, promoting
loyalty), newspapers (owned by pro-imperialists, publishing exaggerated stories of foreign lands and British
heroes "civilising savages"), and popular literature (Rudyard Kipling's Kim justified British rule in India, children's
magazines promoted patriotism). Everyday items and music halls also promoted positive imperialistic images.
The abolition of slavery and the "white man's burden" narrative provided a moral justification for actions
motivated by self-interest. Despite some opposition (e.g., John Hobson, anti-Boer War movements), the majority
of the public appeared to support imperialism, as evidenced by election results.
● France: The government actively encouraged support to restore national prestige lost after the Franco-Prussian
War. The state education system fostered patriotism, teaching children about France's unique and superior role
in spreading its culture globally. The government highlighted the social, political, and economic advantages of
the empire, arguing it would fund social reform and improve working-class conditions. Businesses also paid
newspapers to promote these benefits. The concept of "superior races" having a "responsibility to civilise them,"
articulated by politicians like Jules Ferry, resonated with the prevailing racial ideologies.
● Germany: As a newly unified nation (1871), the German government initially hesitated but later used
imperialism to foster national unity among its diverse population. They stressed the economic advantages
(access to raw materials and markets) and promoted national pride. Organisations like the Colonial Society and
the Navy League were established to gain public support. German missionaries also played a role, providing
information and connections under the guise of "bringing Christianity to 'heathen' populations". Nationalist
sentiments and Germany's "right and responsibility" to expand were promoted through newspapers, literature,
art, and postcards.
