1|Page
WGU PATHOPHYSIOLOGY D236
ACTUAL FINAL EXAM
NEWLY FORMATTED DOCUMENT
Starling's Law describes how fluids move
across the capillary membrane. There are
two major opposing forces that act to
balance each other, hydrostatic pressure
(pushing water out of the capillaries) and
What is Starling's osmotic pressure (including oncontic
Law of Capillary pressure, which pushes fluid into the capillaries).
forces?
Both electrolytes and proteins (oncontic
How does this pressure) in the blood affect osmotic
explain why a pressure, high electrolyte and protein
nutritionally concentrations in the blood would cause
deficient child water to leave the cells and interstitial space
would have and enter the blood stream to dilute the
high concentrations.
edema?
On, the other hand, low electrolyte and
protein concentrations (as seen in a
nutritionally deficient child) would cause
water to leave the capillaries and enter the
cells and interstitial fluid which can lead to
,2|Page
edema.
A drop in blood pressure is sensed by the
kidneys by low perfusion, which in turn
begins to secrete renin.
Renin then triggers the liver to produce
How does the
angiotensinogen, which is converted to
RAAS (Renin-
Angiotensin I in the lungs and then
Angiotensin-
angiotensin II by the enzyme
Aldosterone
System) result in Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
increased blood Angiotensin II stimulates peripheral arterial
volume and vasoconstriction which raises BP.
increased blood
pressure? Angiotensin II is also stimulating the adrenal
gland to release aldosterone, which acts to
increase sodium and water reabsorption
increasing blood volume, while also
increased potassium secretion in urine.
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Normal levels of potassium are between 3.5
and 5.2 mEq/dL. Hyperkalemia refers to
potassium levels higher that 5.2 mEq/dL.
How can hyperkalemia
A major function of potassium is to conduct
lead to cardiac
nerve impulses in muscles. Too low and
arrest?
muscle weakness occurs and too much can
cause muscle spasms.
This is especially dangerous in the heart
muscle and an irregular heartbeat can cause
a heart attack
The body uses the Proteins contain many acidic and basic group that can
Protein Buffering be
affected by pH changes. Any increase or
System, Phosphate
decrease in blood pH can alter the structure
Buffering System, and
of the protein (denature), thereby affecting
Carbonic Acid-
its function as well
Bicarbonate System
to regulate and
maintain
homeostatic pH,
what is the
consequence of a pH
imbalance
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Normal ABGs (Arterial Blood Gases) Blood
pH: 7.35-7.45 PCO2: 35-45 mm Hg PO2: 90-
100 mm Hg HCO3-: 22-26 mEq/L SaO2:
95-100%
Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis are marked
by changes in PCO2. Higher = acidosis and
Describe the
lower = alkalosis
laboratory findings
associated with
Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are caused by
metabolic acidosis,
something other than abnormal CO2 levels.
metabolic alkalosis,
This could include toxicity, diabetes, renal
respiratory acidosis and
respiratory alkalosis. failure or excessive GI losses.
(ie relative pH and
Here are the rules to follow to determine if
CO2 levels).
is respiratory or metabolic in nature. -If pH
and PCO2 are moving in opposite directions,
then it is the pCO2 levels that are causing
the imbalance and it is respiratory in
nature.
-If PCO2 is normal or is moving in the same
direction as the pH, then the imbalance is
metabolic in nature.
The anion gap is the The anion gap is the calculation of
difference between unmeasured anions in the blood.
measured cations (Na+
and K+) and Lactic acid and ketones both lead to the production
of
measured anions (Cl-
unmeasured anions, which remove HCO3- (a
and HCO3-), this
measured anion) due to buffering of the
calculation can be
excess H+ and therefore leads to an
WGU PATHOPHYSIOLOGY D236
ACTUAL FINAL EXAM
NEWLY FORMATTED DOCUMENT
Starling's Law describes how fluids move
across the capillary membrane. There are
two major opposing forces that act to
balance each other, hydrostatic pressure
(pushing water out of the capillaries) and
What is Starling's osmotic pressure (including oncontic
Law of Capillary pressure, which pushes fluid into the capillaries).
forces?
Both electrolytes and proteins (oncontic
How does this pressure) in the blood affect osmotic
explain why a pressure, high electrolyte and protein
nutritionally concentrations in the blood would cause
deficient child water to leave the cells and interstitial space
would have and enter the blood stream to dilute the
high concentrations.
edema?
On, the other hand, low electrolyte and
protein concentrations (as seen in a
nutritionally deficient child) would cause
water to leave the capillaries and enter the
cells and interstitial fluid which can lead to
,2|Page
edema.
A drop in blood pressure is sensed by the
kidneys by low perfusion, which in turn
begins to secrete renin.
Renin then triggers the liver to produce
How does the
angiotensinogen, which is converted to
RAAS (Renin-
Angiotensin I in the lungs and then
Angiotensin-
angiotensin II by the enzyme
Aldosterone
System) result in Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
increased blood Angiotensin II stimulates peripheral arterial
volume and vasoconstriction which raises BP.
increased blood
pressure? Angiotensin II is also stimulating the adrenal
gland to release aldosterone, which acts to
increase sodium and water reabsorption
increasing blood volume, while also
increased potassium secretion in urine.
,3|Page
Normal levels of potassium are between 3.5
and 5.2 mEq/dL. Hyperkalemia refers to
potassium levels higher that 5.2 mEq/dL.
How can hyperkalemia
A major function of potassium is to conduct
lead to cardiac
nerve impulses in muscles. Too low and
arrest?
muscle weakness occurs and too much can
cause muscle spasms.
This is especially dangerous in the heart
muscle and an irregular heartbeat can cause
a heart attack
The body uses the Proteins contain many acidic and basic group that can
Protein Buffering be
affected by pH changes. Any increase or
System, Phosphate
decrease in blood pH can alter the structure
Buffering System, and
of the protein (denature), thereby affecting
Carbonic Acid-
its function as well
Bicarbonate System
to regulate and
maintain
homeostatic pH,
what is the
consequence of a pH
imbalance
, 4|Page
Normal ABGs (Arterial Blood Gases) Blood
pH: 7.35-7.45 PCO2: 35-45 mm Hg PO2: 90-
100 mm Hg HCO3-: 22-26 mEq/L SaO2:
95-100%
Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis are marked
by changes in PCO2. Higher = acidosis and
Describe the
lower = alkalosis
laboratory findings
associated with
Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are caused by
metabolic acidosis,
something other than abnormal CO2 levels.
metabolic alkalosis,
This could include toxicity, diabetes, renal
respiratory acidosis and
respiratory alkalosis. failure or excessive GI losses.
(ie relative pH and
Here are the rules to follow to determine if
CO2 levels).
is respiratory or metabolic in nature. -If pH
and PCO2 are moving in opposite directions,
then it is the pCO2 levels that are causing
the imbalance and it is respiratory in
nature.
-If PCO2 is normal or is moving in the same
direction as the pH, then the imbalance is
metabolic in nature.
The anion gap is the The anion gap is the calculation of
difference between unmeasured anions in the blood.
measured cations (Na+
and K+) and Lactic acid and ketones both lead to the production
of
measured anions (Cl-
unmeasured anions, which remove HCO3- (a
and HCO3-), this
measured anion) due to buffering of the
calculation can be
excess H+ and therefore leads to an
