1 - Henry VII, 1485-1509:
1 – Consolidation of Power:
August 22nd, 1485, Henry, only Lancastrian claimant, was proclaimed king after the Battle of Bosworth by uncle,
Lord Stanley, over Richard III. An insecure claim by mother Lady Margaret Beaufort, many enemies. September 3rd, 1485,
pageant wooed a cheering public from London mayor, accepting any new monarch from Richard’s suspicion and crimes.
Character and aims. Not raised to rule. 1471, fled to Britanny Duchy as Yorkist Edward IV regained power and
executed most Lancastrians. Ability to think fugitively was useful as political training. Yorkists unsatisfied with marriage
regarded him a usurper against several claimants, like the earls of Warwick and Lincoln, Edward IV’s nephews. First
purpose was to consolidate power politically and militarily:
- August 21st, 1485, predated his reign before Bosworth, designating fighting Yorkists as traitor.
- Publicly conferred 11 knighthoods to key supporters.
- Detained Elizabeth of York and Earl of Warwick, seen as having greater claims.
- Made key council and household appointments, like Sir Reginald Bray to Chancellor of the Lancaster Duchy.
- October 30th, coronated before November 7th Parliament, to prove hereditary right and not parliamentary sanction.
- Acts of Attainder against Bosworth Yorkists forfeit property and grant revenues of Tonnage and Poundage for life.
- January 1489, married Elizabeth of York after consolidating steps to ensure his claim was his own and not from
marriage. Union of two warring houses was used as propaganda.
- September, heir Prince Arthur born, securing the dynasty.
Viscount Lovell and Stafford’s, 1486. Easter, minor uprising by Francis Viscount Lovell and Humphrey Stafford
in Richard III’s heartland of Yorkshire North Riding with Stafford’s raised Midlands support. Lovell escaped, Stafford
executed but his younger brother and accomplice pardoned. Little enthusiasm proved for Yorkist uprising in heartlands.
Lambert Simnel and the Earl of Lincoln, 1487. Yorkists needed a figurehead to claim prince and army financial
support. Earl of Lincoln, John de la Pole, conspired Simnel as the Earl of Warwick, imprisoned by Henry and crowned
King Edward of Ireland. Henry publicly executed the real Earl of Warwick in London. Lincoln fled court to join Lovell in
Margaret of Burgundy’s Netherland’s court, persuading her to pay mercenaries to invade England and support Simnel’s
claim. Henry had plenty of notice, gambling the untrustworthy Earl of Northumberland to Northern power, Richard’s old
power base and leader of his Bosworth forces. Neutralised traditional Yorkist Howard family with no conspiracy intentions,
Northumberland a descendant. Reinforced East Anglian defences. Margaret’s rebels landed on northwest Cumberland
coast, crossing the Pennines to raise Yorkshire support. North Riding Gentry reluctant to support, waiting to see the winner.
Battle of Stoke Field, 1487. Gathered advisors in the South and Midlands included close Yorkist Bosworth
relatives, armies met at East Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire. Henry was unconfident, as Richard was double-
crossed. The Earl of Oxford effectively led his army and killed the Earl of Lincoln with his failed support. Victory was
significant, overcome by shrewdness, hard work, supporter’s organisational and military skill with landowners. Lenient
rebel treatment weakened Yorkist resolve, Bonds of Good Behaviour ensured good landowner behaviour to stop ruin.
Perkin Warbeck. Cloth trader pretending to be Richard, Duke of York and attracted foreign patronage from
foreign, as a serious threat he showed Henry’s fragile European position. 1491, Warbeck impersonated Richard in Ireland,
fleeing France after brief appearance in Charles VIII’s court to Margaret of Burgundy’s court, being trained as potential
Yorkist Prince and drew English courtiers into conspiracy.
1495, first attempts at English landing were fiasco, Sir Robert Clifford warned Henry and infiltrated his retinue,
defeating Warbeck who fled to James IV’s court. Very costly as Lord Chamberlain and head of royal household Sir
William Stanley joined the conspiracy, revealing him most vulnerable where he should be most secure. 1496, small Scottish
forces crossed the border before retreating, James IV sacrificing Warbeck’s interests for Henry’s marriage offer to daughter
Margaret. Warbeck’s final attempt was the 1497 Cornish rebellion, his forces were crushed and he originally stayed at court
until Tower confinement after attempting to abscond. Executed after alleged escape with the Earl of Warwick.
Edmund de la Pole, Stafford. 1506 Treaty of Windsor improved relations as Maximillian gave up the Earl of
Stafford, duly imprisoned in the Tower as the final concern for dynastic security.
, 2 – Henry VII’s Government:
227 men attended Henry’s council, only 6 or 7 practised Henry’s working council. Acted often as a separate body
for key administration and had no established procedures. Core membership of ‘Professional’ councillors, like Bray and
Dudley, met to deal with concerns in London when the king was elsewhere. Most influential to Henry was his mother,
Lady Margaret Beaufort. Functions were to advise the king, administer the realm on his behalf and make legal judgement.
- Nobility members, like Lord Daubeney and Dynham, the working council rarely included the great magnates.
- Churchmen, like John Morton and Richard Fox, who had legal training and were excellent administrators.
- Laymen, like Reginald Bray and Edmund Dudley, skilled administrators the king increasingly depended on.
The Council Learned. An offshoot in the 2nd half of the reign under Bray, meeting in the Lancaster Duchy to
maintain revenue and exploit prerogative rights with the system of bonds and recognizances. Trapping victims by
bypassing the normal legal system and causing fear, frustration and anger. Expression of kingly will was important for
authority and raising finance. Richard Empson, fiercely ambitious lawyer and ruthless bureaucrat, was associate and joined
by Edmund Dudley after Bray’s 1503 death. The feared duo made many enemies amongst key advisors, removed by Lovell
and Fox after Henry VII’s death, which was rejoiced in the streets.
Court and Household. Royal court was centre of government, magnificent and generous as wealth was power
and found with the king. Henry was enthusiastic of its representation of personal monarchy and place of royal ceremony.
- Household Proper. Responsible for the courtiers, guests and king’s care with entertainment. Personal and catering
requirements were supervised by the Lord Steward.
- Chamber. Politically important and presided by Lord Chamberlain, most influential with other senior officials.
The position was of great power and trust, hence Sir William Stanley’s significant blow in the Pretender Perkin
Warbeck conspiracy. Made policies and decisions.
- Privy chamber. Created as a king retreat and to be surrounded by his most intimate servants, changing court
character as it was more difficult for servants to regain favour. Henry cut himself off from traditional contacts.
Parliament. Met occasionally and not central to government. Had 2 functions of passing law and granting
taxation. Called only by the king. Early parliaments (5 in the first 10 years) were concerned with national security and
raising revenue, the first 2 passed many Acts of Attainder and declared individuals guilty without trial to forfeit their
property. The 1st granted Tonnage and Poundage and others Extraordinary Revenue, the most common as fifteenths and
tenths, imposing values on taxpayers goods to yield £203,000. The final 1504 parliament limited demand for extraordinary
revenue. Henry respected decisions, operating effectively with private acts to manage local demands.
Domestic Policy. Primary responsibility was maintenance of law and order, relied on well-placed noble members
to exercise power, some were distrusted, like the Earl of Oxford, Lord Daubeney and Marquis of Dorset. Careful balance
limited nobles’ power to prevent challenge. Unlike Edward IV, magnates had reduced numbers, lands fell to the Crown and
spy networks reported performance. Magnates controlled the North, Stanleys the northwest and the Earl of
Northumberland the northeast and Yorkshire, his 1489 murder left Henry without power in the strategically important area.
Yorkist Earl of Surrey, supporter of Richard III, was gambled as replacement but resulted in 10 years of loyal and effective
service.
Justice of the peace (JPs). Maintained countryside local law and order, appointed county-by-county basis. Met 4
times yearly to administer justice. Common for royal officials to be appointed in counties of interest. Most fulfilled unpaid
tasks from sense of duty or belief of greater advancement or prestige. Parliament increased powers for tax assessments,
alehouse regulations and investigations of complaints against local officials.
Royal Finance. Spent great effort to improve royal finance at a political cost. Main victims were landowners,
needed to support Henry if threatened, but their treatment threatened the Crown itself.
- Crown lands. Henry was the largest landowner and rental income was pivotal. Fell to £12,000 per year, collected
ineffectively by Court of Exchequer to prove Henry’s financial inexperience. 1492, Henry reverted to Edward’s
, administration with Chamber royal household. Finance improved to £42,000 per year, achieved the Chamber’s
effective treasurers, like Sir Thomas Lovell and Sir John Heron.
- Feudal due profits and royal prerogative exercises. Pursuit of king’s feudal dues was tightened, increasing
Wardship profits and parliament granted Feudal Aid in 1504. Prerogativa Regis, a 13th-century text, was
examined to find precedents to levy fees of the king’s prerogative. Obligations payable on the death of a feudal
tenant-in-chief irritated landowners but increased revenue, the 1489 Statute of Uses cut the loophole for this.
- Customs revenue. Tonnage and Poundage increased annual revenue from this of £34,000 to £38,000.
- Pensions from foreign powers. The 1492 Treaty of Etaples from the French agreed to pay £5000 per annum.
- Profits of Justices. Including fines and incomes from bonds, which represented potential assets rather than real.
Between 1504 – 1507, £200,000 was promised to Henry, but not all was collected.
-
- Extraordinary revenue. Henry received over £400,000 from this, but this helped provoke rebellions in 1489 and
1497. In 1489, the Convocation of Canterbury offered £25,000 on top of the £75,000 subsidy.
Bonds and Recognizances. Forced on victims to restore law and order through obedience, some were from
genuine debts but mostly political. Dudley stated the king wished “to have many people in danger at his pleasure”.
Type of Court: Areas of jurisdiction:
Church - Church administration.
- Clergy and ‘Moral’ offences.
- Proving of wills.
- Marital issues.
Local: - Landholding.
Manor - Rights and responsibilities of landlords and tenants.
- Use of common land.
- Responsibilities of drainage and land issues.
Borough - Medieval trading standards.
- Specific judicial rights granted by royal charter.
Country-level Kingly - Assizes. Twice yearly for major criminal and civil cases by senior Westminster judges.
- Quarter sessions 4 times yearly, presided by JPs, for lesser criminal offences, civil and
administrative affairs.
- Special commissions, on an ad hoc basis for major issues of rebellion.
King’s Common Law - King’s Bench: superior criminal jurisdiction.
- Common Pleas: dealt with major civil cases.
- Exchequer: deal with issues relating to royal revenue.
Chancery and Equity - Exercised jurisdiction on equity basis than strict reading of common law.
, 3 – England’s relations with Scotland and foreign powers, 1495 - 1509:
Henry’s wanted good relations and defence, with no intention to restart the French Hundred Years War, ensuring
national security, recognition of Tudor dynasty and English trading interest defences.
Brittany. 1487, French invasion, gained control of Brittany. 1489, Henry summoned parliament for extraordinary
revenue for an army due to sense of Breton obligation and fear French control would increase threat to England. February
1489, Treaty of Redon was agreed with Brittany, where Duchess Anne would pay for small English army for defence and
strengthening position with Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian by alliance, who contracted marriage-by-proxy with Anne
and had no desire for loss of Brittany. The English army became marooned as Anne feared futility of prolonged French
resistance, surrendering to marriage with Charles VIII. Maximillian lost interest and Warbeck sought French backing. 1492,
Henry skilfully recovered by a French invasion. Agent information was Charles had Italian interest and would seek
immediate peace settlement, a large but successful gamble. The 1492 Treaty of Etaples, Charles agreed to withdraw
Warbeck support and pay pension for the English army. Henry improved finance, Anglo-French relations and defended
national and dynastic interests.
Burgundy, Netherlands, Holy Roman Empire. English exports went through Danish Antwerp and Bruges ports,
under Burgundy’s jurisdiction, important commercially for good relations. Margaret, widowed duchess, was sister of
Edward IV and Richard III, leader of Yorkist cause. Son of Holy Roman Emperor, Philip, had Netherland’s jurisdiction.
Relations broke with Maximillian’s and Philip’s hospitality to Warbeck. Henry gambled a Burgundy trade embargo to ease
tension, bringing two foreign policy objectives into conflict, dynastic security and trade. Henry sacrificed London and east-
coast merchants, being unpopular in those regions. Relations improved when Warbeck left Burgundy, Henry and Philip
ending the embargo with the 1496 Intercursus Magnus. 1504, after Isabella, Queen of Castille’s death the Treaty of
Windsor and consequent Intercursus Malus formed by Henry’s forceful nature, with domestic financial affairs. Demanding
much stronger English trading position (if in practise) and for Philip and Maximillian to hand over Yorkist fugitive, Earl of
Suffolk. Improving English trading and dynastic security.
Spain. Ruled by Ferdinand and wife Isabella, powerful and Henry wanted good relations with. The 1489 Treaty
of Medina del Campo gave international peace and security, by:
- Offering mutual protection in case of attack.
- Agreeing not to harbour rebels or pretenders.
- Arranging a marriage alliance with Arthur, Prince of Wales. and Catherine, Princess of Aragon.
Tensions were caused with the implementation of the treaty:
- Royal marriage arrangements were unsmooth.
- Ferdinand was reluctant to marry his daughter as stability was threatened by Warbeck.
- Arguments ensued over the size of Catherine’s dowry.
1499, marriage details were agreed. 1501, took place with complications from Arthur’s death:
- Henry immediately suggested marriage to Henry to reluctant Ferdinand who had no need of English alliance and
expensive papal dispensation.
- 1504, Isabella died, and Henry lost enthusiasm from Ferdinand’s political decline. Supported Juana (Catherine’s
sister) in ensuing succession struggle.
January 1506, Juana and husband Philip set sail for Spain, taking refuge in England when their shipwrecked at sea, Henry
took advantage with the 1506 Treaty of Windsor:
- Intercursus Malus restored trade relations between England and Burgundy.
- Return of the Earl of Suffolk secured Henry’s dynastic security.
- Proposed marriage between himself and Philip’s sister, Archduchess Margaret, after Elizabeth’s death.
- Henry’s recognition of Juana and Philip as rulers of Castile, strengthening their claim to Spanish throne.
Philip’s death soon after return to Spain was disastrous:
- Juana was described by father Ferdinand as mad with grief by father Ferdinand who became regent of Castille.
- Henry was diplomatically isolated after being outsmarted by another European Monarch.
- Ferdinand ensured Henry and Catherine’s marriage would not happen in Henry VII’s life.
1 – Consolidation of Power:
August 22nd, 1485, Henry, only Lancastrian claimant, was proclaimed king after the Battle of Bosworth by uncle,
Lord Stanley, over Richard III. An insecure claim by mother Lady Margaret Beaufort, many enemies. September 3rd, 1485,
pageant wooed a cheering public from London mayor, accepting any new monarch from Richard’s suspicion and crimes.
Character and aims. Not raised to rule. 1471, fled to Britanny Duchy as Yorkist Edward IV regained power and
executed most Lancastrians. Ability to think fugitively was useful as political training. Yorkists unsatisfied with marriage
regarded him a usurper against several claimants, like the earls of Warwick and Lincoln, Edward IV’s nephews. First
purpose was to consolidate power politically and militarily:
- August 21st, 1485, predated his reign before Bosworth, designating fighting Yorkists as traitor.
- Publicly conferred 11 knighthoods to key supporters.
- Detained Elizabeth of York and Earl of Warwick, seen as having greater claims.
- Made key council and household appointments, like Sir Reginald Bray to Chancellor of the Lancaster Duchy.
- October 30th, coronated before November 7th Parliament, to prove hereditary right and not parliamentary sanction.
- Acts of Attainder against Bosworth Yorkists forfeit property and grant revenues of Tonnage and Poundage for life.
- January 1489, married Elizabeth of York after consolidating steps to ensure his claim was his own and not from
marriage. Union of two warring houses was used as propaganda.
- September, heir Prince Arthur born, securing the dynasty.
Viscount Lovell and Stafford’s, 1486. Easter, minor uprising by Francis Viscount Lovell and Humphrey Stafford
in Richard III’s heartland of Yorkshire North Riding with Stafford’s raised Midlands support. Lovell escaped, Stafford
executed but his younger brother and accomplice pardoned. Little enthusiasm proved for Yorkist uprising in heartlands.
Lambert Simnel and the Earl of Lincoln, 1487. Yorkists needed a figurehead to claim prince and army financial
support. Earl of Lincoln, John de la Pole, conspired Simnel as the Earl of Warwick, imprisoned by Henry and crowned
King Edward of Ireland. Henry publicly executed the real Earl of Warwick in London. Lincoln fled court to join Lovell in
Margaret of Burgundy’s Netherland’s court, persuading her to pay mercenaries to invade England and support Simnel’s
claim. Henry had plenty of notice, gambling the untrustworthy Earl of Northumberland to Northern power, Richard’s old
power base and leader of his Bosworth forces. Neutralised traditional Yorkist Howard family with no conspiracy intentions,
Northumberland a descendant. Reinforced East Anglian defences. Margaret’s rebels landed on northwest Cumberland
coast, crossing the Pennines to raise Yorkshire support. North Riding Gentry reluctant to support, waiting to see the winner.
Battle of Stoke Field, 1487. Gathered advisors in the South and Midlands included close Yorkist Bosworth
relatives, armies met at East Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire. Henry was unconfident, as Richard was double-
crossed. The Earl of Oxford effectively led his army and killed the Earl of Lincoln with his failed support. Victory was
significant, overcome by shrewdness, hard work, supporter’s organisational and military skill with landowners. Lenient
rebel treatment weakened Yorkist resolve, Bonds of Good Behaviour ensured good landowner behaviour to stop ruin.
Perkin Warbeck. Cloth trader pretending to be Richard, Duke of York and attracted foreign patronage from
foreign, as a serious threat he showed Henry’s fragile European position. 1491, Warbeck impersonated Richard in Ireland,
fleeing France after brief appearance in Charles VIII’s court to Margaret of Burgundy’s court, being trained as potential
Yorkist Prince and drew English courtiers into conspiracy.
1495, first attempts at English landing were fiasco, Sir Robert Clifford warned Henry and infiltrated his retinue,
defeating Warbeck who fled to James IV’s court. Very costly as Lord Chamberlain and head of royal household Sir
William Stanley joined the conspiracy, revealing him most vulnerable where he should be most secure. 1496, small Scottish
forces crossed the border before retreating, James IV sacrificing Warbeck’s interests for Henry’s marriage offer to daughter
Margaret. Warbeck’s final attempt was the 1497 Cornish rebellion, his forces were crushed and he originally stayed at court
until Tower confinement after attempting to abscond. Executed after alleged escape with the Earl of Warwick.
Edmund de la Pole, Stafford. 1506 Treaty of Windsor improved relations as Maximillian gave up the Earl of
Stafford, duly imprisoned in the Tower as the final concern for dynastic security.
, 2 – Henry VII’s Government:
227 men attended Henry’s council, only 6 or 7 practised Henry’s working council. Acted often as a separate body
for key administration and had no established procedures. Core membership of ‘Professional’ councillors, like Bray and
Dudley, met to deal with concerns in London when the king was elsewhere. Most influential to Henry was his mother,
Lady Margaret Beaufort. Functions were to advise the king, administer the realm on his behalf and make legal judgement.
- Nobility members, like Lord Daubeney and Dynham, the working council rarely included the great magnates.
- Churchmen, like John Morton and Richard Fox, who had legal training and were excellent administrators.
- Laymen, like Reginald Bray and Edmund Dudley, skilled administrators the king increasingly depended on.
The Council Learned. An offshoot in the 2nd half of the reign under Bray, meeting in the Lancaster Duchy to
maintain revenue and exploit prerogative rights with the system of bonds and recognizances. Trapping victims by
bypassing the normal legal system and causing fear, frustration and anger. Expression of kingly will was important for
authority and raising finance. Richard Empson, fiercely ambitious lawyer and ruthless bureaucrat, was associate and joined
by Edmund Dudley after Bray’s 1503 death. The feared duo made many enemies amongst key advisors, removed by Lovell
and Fox after Henry VII’s death, which was rejoiced in the streets.
Court and Household. Royal court was centre of government, magnificent and generous as wealth was power
and found with the king. Henry was enthusiastic of its representation of personal monarchy and place of royal ceremony.
- Household Proper. Responsible for the courtiers, guests and king’s care with entertainment. Personal and catering
requirements were supervised by the Lord Steward.
- Chamber. Politically important and presided by Lord Chamberlain, most influential with other senior officials.
The position was of great power and trust, hence Sir William Stanley’s significant blow in the Pretender Perkin
Warbeck conspiracy. Made policies and decisions.
- Privy chamber. Created as a king retreat and to be surrounded by his most intimate servants, changing court
character as it was more difficult for servants to regain favour. Henry cut himself off from traditional contacts.
Parliament. Met occasionally and not central to government. Had 2 functions of passing law and granting
taxation. Called only by the king. Early parliaments (5 in the first 10 years) were concerned with national security and
raising revenue, the first 2 passed many Acts of Attainder and declared individuals guilty without trial to forfeit their
property. The 1st granted Tonnage and Poundage and others Extraordinary Revenue, the most common as fifteenths and
tenths, imposing values on taxpayers goods to yield £203,000. The final 1504 parliament limited demand for extraordinary
revenue. Henry respected decisions, operating effectively with private acts to manage local demands.
Domestic Policy. Primary responsibility was maintenance of law and order, relied on well-placed noble members
to exercise power, some were distrusted, like the Earl of Oxford, Lord Daubeney and Marquis of Dorset. Careful balance
limited nobles’ power to prevent challenge. Unlike Edward IV, magnates had reduced numbers, lands fell to the Crown and
spy networks reported performance. Magnates controlled the North, Stanleys the northwest and the Earl of
Northumberland the northeast and Yorkshire, his 1489 murder left Henry without power in the strategically important area.
Yorkist Earl of Surrey, supporter of Richard III, was gambled as replacement but resulted in 10 years of loyal and effective
service.
Justice of the peace (JPs). Maintained countryside local law and order, appointed county-by-county basis. Met 4
times yearly to administer justice. Common for royal officials to be appointed in counties of interest. Most fulfilled unpaid
tasks from sense of duty or belief of greater advancement or prestige. Parliament increased powers for tax assessments,
alehouse regulations and investigations of complaints against local officials.
Royal Finance. Spent great effort to improve royal finance at a political cost. Main victims were landowners,
needed to support Henry if threatened, but their treatment threatened the Crown itself.
- Crown lands. Henry was the largest landowner and rental income was pivotal. Fell to £12,000 per year, collected
ineffectively by Court of Exchequer to prove Henry’s financial inexperience. 1492, Henry reverted to Edward’s
, administration with Chamber royal household. Finance improved to £42,000 per year, achieved the Chamber’s
effective treasurers, like Sir Thomas Lovell and Sir John Heron.
- Feudal due profits and royal prerogative exercises. Pursuit of king’s feudal dues was tightened, increasing
Wardship profits and parliament granted Feudal Aid in 1504. Prerogativa Regis, a 13th-century text, was
examined to find precedents to levy fees of the king’s prerogative. Obligations payable on the death of a feudal
tenant-in-chief irritated landowners but increased revenue, the 1489 Statute of Uses cut the loophole for this.
- Customs revenue. Tonnage and Poundage increased annual revenue from this of £34,000 to £38,000.
- Pensions from foreign powers. The 1492 Treaty of Etaples from the French agreed to pay £5000 per annum.
- Profits of Justices. Including fines and incomes from bonds, which represented potential assets rather than real.
Between 1504 – 1507, £200,000 was promised to Henry, but not all was collected.
-
- Extraordinary revenue. Henry received over £400,000 from this, but this helped provoke rebellions in 1489 and
1497. In 1489, the Convocation of Canterbury offered £25,000 on top of the £75,000 subsidy.
Bonds and Recognizances. Forced on victims to restore law and order through obedience, some were from
genuine debts but mostly political. Dudley stated the king wished “to have many people in danger at his pleasure”.
Type of Court: Areas of jurisdiction:
Church - Church administration.
- Clergy and ‘Moral’ offences.
- Proving of wills.
- Marital issues.
Local: - Landholding.
Manor - Rights and responsibilities of landlords and tenants.
- Use of common land.
- Responsibilities of drainage and land issues.
Borough - Medieval trading standards.
- Specific judicial rights granted by royal charter.
Country-level Kingly - Assizes. Twice yearly for major criminal and civil cases by senior Westminster judges.
- Quarter sessions 4 times yearly, presided by JPs, for lesser criminal offences, civil and
administrative affairs.
- Special commissions, on an ad hoc basis for major issues of rebellion.
King’s Common Law - King’s Bench: superior criminal jurisdiction.
- Common Pleas: dealt with major civil cases.
- Exchequer: deal with issues relating to royal revenue.
Chancery and Equity - Exercised jurisdiction on equity basis than strict reading of common law.
, 3 – England’s relations with Scotland and foreign powers, 1495 - 1509:
Henry’s wanted good relations and defence, with no intention to restart the French Hundred Years War, ensuring
national security, recognition of Tudor dynasty and English trading interest defences.
Brittany. 1487, French invasion, gained control of Brittany. 1489, Henry summoned parliament for extraordinary
revenue for an army due to sense of Breton obligation and fear French control would increase threat to England. February
1489, Treaty of Redon was agreed with Brittany, where Duchess Anne would pay for small English army for defence and
strengthening position with Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian by alliance, who contracted marriage-by-proxy with Anne
and had no desire for loss of Brittany. The English army became marooned as Anne feared futility of prolonged French
resistance, surrendering to marriage with Charles VIII. Maximillian lost interest and Warbeck sought French backing. 1492,
Henry skilfully recovered by a French invasion. Agent information was Charles had Italian interest and would seek
immediate peace settlement, a large but successful gamble. The 1492 Treaty of Etaples, Charles agreed to withdraw
Warbeck support and pay pension for the English army. Henry improved finance, Anglo-French relations and defended
national and dynastic interests.
Burgundy, Netherlands, Holy Roman Empire. English exports went through Danish Antwerp and Bruges ports,
under Burgundy’s jurisdiction, important commercially for good relations. Margaret, widowed duchess, was sister of
Edward IV and Richard III, leader of Yorkist cause. Son of Holy Roman Emperor, Philip, had Netherland’s jurisdiction.
Relations broke with Maximillian’s and Philip’s hospitality to Warbeck. Henry gambled a Burgundy trade embargo to ease
tension, bringing two foreign policy objectives into conflict, dynastic security and trade. Henry sacrificed London and east-
coast merchants, being unpopular in those regions. Relations improved when Warbeck left Burgundy, Henry and Philip
ending the embargo with the 1496 Intercursus Magnus. 1504, after Isabella, Queen of Castille’s death the Treaty of
Windsor and consequent Intercursus Malus formed by Henry’s forceful nature, with domestic financial affairs. Demanding
much stronger English trading position (if in practise) and for Philip and Maximillian to hand over Yorkist fugitive, Earl of
Suffolk. Improving English trading and dynastic security.
Spain. Ruled by Ferdinand and wife Isabella, powerful and Henry wanted good relations with. The 1489 Treaty
of Medina del Campo gave international peace and security, by:
- Offering mutual protection in case of attack.
- Agreeing not to harbour rebels or pretenders.
- Arranging a marriage alliance with Arthur, Prince of Wales. and Catherine, Princess of Aragon.
Tensions were caused with the implementation of the treaty:
- Royal marriage arrangements were unsmooth.
- Ferdinand was reluctant to marry his daughter as stability was threatened by Warbeck.
- Arguments ensued over the size of Catherine’s dowry.
1499, marriage details were agreed. 1501, took place with complications from Arthur’s death:
- Henry immediately suggested marriage to Henry to reluctant Ferdinand who had no need of English alliance and
expensive papal dispensation.
- 1504, Isabella died, and Henry lost enthusiasm from Ferdinand’s political decline. Supported Juana (Catherine’s
sister) in ensuing succession struggle.
January 1506, Juana and husband Philip set sail for Spain, taking refuge in England when their shipwrecked at sea, Henry
took advantage with the 1506 Treaty of Windsor:
- Intercursus Malus restored trade relations between England and Burgundy.
- Return of the Earl of Suffolk secured Henry’s dynastic security.
- Proposed marriage between himself and Philip’s sister, Archduchess Margaret, after Elizabeth’s death.
- Henry’s recognition of Juana and Philip as rulers of Castile, strengthening their claim to Spanish throne.
Philip’s death soon after return to Spain was disastrous:
- Juana was described by father Ferdinand as mad with grief by father Ferdinand who became regent of Castille.
- Henry was diplomatically isolated after being outsmarted by another European Monarch.
- Ferdinand ensured Henry and Catherine’s marriage would not happen in Henry VII’s life.
