SOPHIA CRITICAL THINKING MILESTONE 4 | 150 REAL
EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 100% RATED CORRECT ANSWERS
(ACCURATELY PASSED) 2025 LATEST UPDATED GET A+
Analogical Reasoning - (ANSWER)The branch of inductive reasoning that discerns patterns
and attempts to draw conclusions based on comparisons with other known phenomena.
Causal Reasoning - (ANSWER)The branch of inductive reasoning that explores the causes of
known phenomena or the effects of known causes.
Defeasibility - (ANSWER)In inductive reasoning, the quality of an argument where new
evidence might change our conclusion.
Inference to the Best Explanation - (ANSWER)The branch of inductive reasoning that tries to
explain how specific events came to occur.
Probabilistic - (ANSWER)Statements that are true some percentage of the time, as opposed to
statements that are absolutely true or absolutely false.
Probability - (ANSWER)A branch of mathematics concerned with describing the likelihood of
future (unobserved) events.
Statistics - (ANSWER)A branch of mathematics concerned with describing the likelihood of
past (observed) events to occur. Often it involves trying to describe the underlying causes of the
observed data, and explain any observed variation
Absolutism - (ANSWER)The belief that certain actions will always be morally wrong
irrespective of context or consequences.
,Accidental Correlation - (ANSWER)When there is evident correlation between two variables
but no explanation of how one can cause the other or how both can be affected by the same third
factor. There are two types of accidental correlations: nonsense and spurious.
Anecdotal Evidence - (ANSWER)Making statistical generalizations based on first- or second-
hand experience.
Argument From Analogy - (ANSWER)An inductive argument where one or more perceived
similarities between two things are presumed to indicate deeper similarities.
Background Conditions - (ANSWER)The totality of things, many assumed, that must be in
place for an event to occur.
Base Rate - (ANSWER)The probability of the target outcome prior to the observation of any
data.
Biased (Sample) - (ANSWER)The quality of a sample not being a good/representative measure
of the population, by under-counting or over-counting some members. This may be intentional or
unintentional.
Candidates - (ANSWER)In testing for causality, the factors that may be (alone or in part) a
cause for the target outcome. These are the factors that are tracked in a log.
Categorical Imperative - (ANSWER)The idea that our moral actions should be carried out as if
they were universal laws.
Causal Generalization - (ANSWER)A statement about the cause of a phenomenon, that
generalizes beyond the specific observed event. They have the form: for any x, if x has the
feature(s) F, then x has the feature G.
Causation - (ANSWER)The determination that one event causes another to occur.
, Concomitant Variation - (ANSWER)The measure of two factors over time to see how one
relates to the other.
Conjunction Fallacy - (ANSWER)The reasoning error where the probability of two events
happening is judged to be higher than the probability of either event happening. This is a fallacy
given that the rule for determining the probability of two events is calculated by multiplying the
probability of the two single events together; it yields a lower probability than either single
event. According to probability theory, the conjunction should be judged to be less likely than
either conjunct, but experimental research shows that people don't behave that way. This error
can result when the additional information makes an outcome fit better with our preconceived
notions.
Connotation - (ANSWER)An implied evaluative meaning to a word that is also descriptive.
Consequentialism - (ANSWER)The belief that the moral value of an action or event is
determined entirely by the consequences of that event.
Conservativeness - (ANSWER)The better explanation is the one that forces us to give up fewer
established beliefs.
Deontology - (ANSWER)The belief that moral actions are set by universal laws.
Dependent - (ANSWER)In probability, when the outcome of at least one event has an effect on
at least one other event.
Depth - (ANSWER)Explanations should not raise more questions than they answer.
Disanalogy - (ANSWER)A crucial difference between two things being compared, used to
refute a false analogy.
EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 100% RATED CORRECT ANSWERS
(ACCURATELY PASSED) 2025 LATEST UPDATED GET A+
Analogical Reasoning - (ANSWER)The branch of inductive reasoning that discerns patterns
and attempts to draw conclusions based on comparisons with other known phenomena.
Causal Reasoning - (ANSWER)The branch of inductive reasoning that explores the causes of
known phenomena or the effects of known causes.
Defeasibility - (ANSWER)In inductive reasoning, the quality of an argument where new
evidence might change our conclusion.
Inference to the Best Explanation - (ANSWER)The branch of inductive reasoning that tries to
explain how specific events came to occur.
Probabilistic - (ANSWER)Statements that are true some percentage of the time, as opposed to
statements that are absolutely true or absolutely false.
Probability - (ANSWER)A branch of mathematics concerned with describing the likelihood of
future (unobserved) events.
Statistics - (ANSWER)A branch of mathematics concerned with describing the likelihood of
past (observed) events to occur. Often it involves trying to describe the underlying causes of the
observed data, and explain any observed variation
Absolutism - (ANSWER)The belief that certain actions will always be morally wrong
irrespective of context or consequences.
,Accidental Correlation - (ANSWER)When there is evident correlation between two variables
but no explanation of how one can cause the other or how both can be affected by the same third
factor. There are two types of accidental correlations: nonsense and spurious.
Anecdotal Evidence - (ANSWER)Making statistical generalizations based on first- or second-
hand experience.
Argument From Analogy - (ANSWER)An inductive argument where one or more perceived
similarities between two things are presumed to indicate deeper similarities.
Background Conditions - (ANSWER)The totality of things, many assumed, that must be in
place for an event to occur.
Base Rate - (ANSWER)The probability of the target outcome prior to the observation of any
data.
Biased (Sample) - (ANSWER)The quality of a sample not being a good/representative measure
of the population, by under-counting or over-counting some members. This may be intentional or
unintentional.
Candidates - (ANSWER)In testing for causality, the factors that may be (alone or in part) a
cause for the target outcome. These are the factors that are tracked in a log.
Categorical Imperative - (ANSWER)The idea that our moral actions should be carried out as if
they were universal laws.
Causal Generalization - (ANSWER)A statement about the cause of a phenomenon, that
generalizes beyond the specific observed event. They have the form: for any x, if x has the
feature(s) F, then x has the feature G.
Causation - (ANSWER)The determination that one event causes another to occur.
, Concomitant Variation - (ANSWER)The measure of two factors over time to see how one
relates to the other.
Conjunction Fallacy - (ANSWER)The reasoning error where the probability of two events
happening is judged to be higher than the probability of either event happening. This is a fallacy
given that the rule for determining the probability of two events is calculated by multiplying the
probability of the two single events together; it yields a lower probability than either single
event. According to probability theory, the conjunction should be judged to be less likely than
either conjunct, but experimental research shows that people don't behave that way. This error
can result when the additional information makes an outcome fit better with our preconceived
notions.
Connotation - (ANSWER)An implied evaluative meaning to a word that is also descriptive.
Consequentialism - (ANSWER)The belief that the moral value of an action or event is
determined entirely by the consequences of that event.
Conservativeness - (ANSWER)The better explanation is the one that forces us to give up fewer
established beliefs.
Deontology - (ANSWER)The belief that moral actions are set by universal laws.
Dependent - (ANSWER)In probability, when the outcome of at least one event has an effect on
at least one other event.
Depth - (ANSWER)Explanations should not raise more questions than they answer.
Disanalogy - (ANSWER)A crucial difference between two things being compared, used to
refute a false analogy.
