The basic concepts................................................................................................................. 3
1. The Linguistic system...................................................................................................... 3
2. What is phonology?......................................................................................................... 3
3. Basic concepts................................................................................................................. 4
4. English worldwide............................................................................................................ 5
The speech mechanism.......................................................................................................... 6
1. The respiratory system.................................................................................................... 6
2. The phonatory system..................................................................................................... 7
3. The articulatory system................................................................................................... 7
Consonant possibilities........................................................................................................... 9
1. Manner of articulation..................................................................................................... 9
2. Place of articulation....................................................................................................... 10
3. Energy of articulation.................................................................................................... 10
4. Secondary articulation................................................................................................... 11
5. Articulatory setting........................................................................................................ 12
Consonants of English.......................................................................................................... 13
1. Types of consonants...................................................................................................... 13
2. The fortis/lenis opposition............................................................................................. 13
3. Allophonic variation....................................................................................................... 14
Syllable and vowel-consonant distinction............................................................................. 16
1. Phonological approach.................................................................................................. 16
2. Acoustic approach......................................................................................................... 17
3. Articulatory approach.................................................................................................... 18
4. Summary & conclusions................................................................................................ 18
Vowel possibilities................................................................................................................. 19
1. Tongue shape................................................................................................................ 19
2. Lip shape....................................................................................................................... 20
3. Steady-state vs diphthongs........................................................................................... 20
4. Position of soft palate.................................................................................................... 21
5. Duration........................................................................................................................ 21
Vowels of English.................................................................................................................. 22
1. Checked vowels............................................................................................................. 22
2. Free vowels.................................................................................................................... 22
Phonemic transcription......................................................................................................... 25
Keys to transcription.......................................................................................................... 25
Connected speech................................................................................................................ 26
Phonetic conditioning........................................................................................................ 26
Prosody: stress...................................................................................................................... 29
What is stress?.................................................................................................................. 29
Word stress........................................................................................................................ 30
Sentence ‘stress’ (or focus)............................................................................................... 31
Page 1 of 47
,Prosody: intonation............................................................................................................... 32
Tone & intonation.............................................................................................................. 32
Intonation in English.......................................................................................................... 32
Variation in intonation?...................................................................................................... 34
A contrastive approach: Dutch vs English.........................................................................34
Praat Tutorial (7/11)........................................................................................................... 35
Case study: tag questions.................................................................................................. 35
Contrastive phonology.......................................................................................................... 36
Theoretical background..................................................................................................... 36
Case study: English vs Dutch............................................................................................. 37
Phonology & orthography..................................................................................................... 39
Phonology – orthography................................................................................................... 39
L1-acquisition.................................................................................................................... 42
Page 2 of 47
,Phonology: study of sound in human language (broader than phonetics)
The basic concepts
1. The Linguistic system
- Subdisciplines
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology (formation of words)
Semantics (meaning of words) => lexicology
Syntax (formation of sentences/phrases)
Pragmatics (meaning in context/usage)
Phonetics & phonology: not a meaning in itself, more an abstract meaning
Phonemes have a distinctive function
- The speech chain: speaker to perceiver
Thought > linguistic representation > vocal
tract movements > acoustics > auditory
perception > linguistic representation >
thought
Acoustic: different properties
Linguistic representation: thought/notion
triggers a representation e.g. different word(relations) or grammatical
structures => chosen meaning is reflected in the sound-pattern
Phonetics = the bottom part (actual production)
Phonology = mostly linguistic representation, abstract concept
Overlap in linguistic representation
2. What is phonology?
2.1Phonology vs phonetics
- Phonemic transcription: same phoneme in different language, but they are
realized in a different way
- Phonetics = how sounds are produced, articulation (science of speech sound)
- Phonology = how sounds pattern and function in a given (specific) language
- Different to draw a neat distinction between them
You need both for research/ better understanding
Broad distinction:
Phonetics = actual physical sounds
Phonology = abstract cognitive system (how sounds form and
function in the system)
[+ dia 13]
- Phonetics: 3 main branches
Articulatory phonetics: movements of
tongue, lips, speech organs => production
Acoustic phonetics: physical nature of speech
signal => transmission
Auditory phonetics: how ear receives speech
signal => reception
- Phonology: how meaning is expressed through sound in spoken language
How sounds (phones) are grouped into distinctive units (phonemes)
Page 3 of 47
, E.g. [k] and [kh] /k/
Meaning of sound at all levels of linguistic structure (word stress, sentence
stress, intonation)
3. Basic concepts
3.1The phoneme
- Abstract idea of a sound that has a distinctive value
- Speech = continuous flow of sound, no neat parts
If you only interrupt to breath/think, how can you cut up the flow into parts
(as a researcher)?
How do you segment speech? Happens subconsciously
Examples dia 19 (diphthong = 1 phoneme)
Cat: 3 segments
School: 4 segments
Ijs: 2 segments
Chocolade: 8 segments
Most native speakers agree on number of segments in a word
- Segments do not operate in isolation but combine to form morphemes & words
Different sound-combinations result in different morphemes and words
Different combinations of segments => different lexical meaning
Minimal pair: 2 words that differ in only 1 segment
Dia 21
Fight – fine : minimal pair
Night – knight: no minimal pair (same sound homophones)
His – hiss: minimal pair (/z/ vs /s/)
Gate – wait: minimal pair
This – thin: no minimal pair (voicing vs no voicing and s vs n)
These – those: minimal pair
Via minimal pairs: determine which speech sounds are
phonologically significant in give language
- phonemes: contrastive/distinctive units of sound that can be used to change
meaning
= smallest meaning-changing units in language
morphemes: smallest meaning-bearing units
Abstract entities phones: concrete sounds in actual usage
- Phoneme: generalisation that groups phones that are interpreted as similar in
structure and perhaps implement same function
3.2Allophonic variation
- Variants that a phoneme allows for
- Still similar to the ‘prototype’ of the phoneme
- E.g. dia 24 + dia 25: phoneme /l/
clear ‘l’
Devoiced ‘l’
Velar ‘l’ (back of your tongue is raised)
- 2 kinds of variation
Complementary distribution: context determines which allophone you use
Free variation: context in which a sound occurs doesn’t determine, can be
social/regional
Page 4 of 47
1. The Linguistic system...................................................................................................... 3
2. What is phonology?......................................................................................................... 3
3. Basic concepts................................................................................................................. 4
4. English worldwide............................................................................................................ 5
The speech mechanism.......................................................................................................... 6
1. The respiratory system.................................................................................................... 6
2. The phonatory system..................................................................................................... 7
3. The articulatory system................................................................................................... 7
Consonant possibilities........................................................................................................... 9
1. Manner of articulation..................................................................................................... 9
2. Place of articulation....................................................................................................... 10
3. Energy of articulation.................................................................................................... 10
4. Secondary articulation................................................................................................... 11
5. Articulatory setting........................................................................................................ 12
Consonants of English.......................................................................................................... 13
1. Types of consonants...................................................................................................... 13
2. The fortis/lenis opposition............................................................................................. 13
3. Allophonic variation....................................................................................................... 14
Syllable and vowel-consonant distinction............................................................................. 16
1. Phonological approach.................................................................................................. 16
2. Acoustic approach......................................................................................................... 17
3. Articulatory approach.................................................................................................... 18
4. Summary & conclusions................................................................................................ 18
Vowel possibilities................................................................................................................. 19
1. Tongue shape................................................................................................................ 19
2. Lip shape....................................................................................................................... 20
3. Steady-state vs diphthongs........................................................................................... 20
4. Position of soft palate.................................................................................................... 21
5. Duration........................................................................................................................ 21
Vowels of English.................................................................................................................. 22
1. Checked vowels............................................................................................................. 22
2. Free vowels.................................................................................................................... 22
Phonemic transcription......................................................................................................... 25
Keys to transcription.......................................................................................................... 25
Connected speech................................................................................................................ 26
Phonetic conditioning........................................................................................................ 26
Prosody: stress...................................................................................................................... 29
What is stress?.................................................................................................................. 29
Word stress........................................................................................................................ 30
Sentence ‘stress’ (or focus)............................................................................................... 31
Page 1 of 47
,Prosody: intonation............................................................................................................... 32
Tone & intonation.............................................................................................................. 32
Intonation in English.......................................................................................................... 32
Variation in intonation?...................................................................................................... 34
A contrastive approach: Dutch vs English.........................................................................34
Praat Tutorial (7/11)........................................................................................................... 35
Case study: tag questions.................................................................................................. 35
Contrastive phonology.......................................................................................................... 36
Theoretical background..................................................................................................... 36
Case study: English vs Dutch............................................................................................. 37
Phonology & orthography..................................................................................................... 39
Phonology – orthography................................................................................................... 39
L1-acquisition.................................................................................................................... 42
Page 2 of 47
,Phonology: study of sound in human language (broader than phonetics)
The basic concepts
1. The Linguistic system
- Subdisciplines
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology (formation of words)
Semantics (meaning of words) => lexicology
Syntax (formation of sentences/phrases)
Pragmatics (meaning in context/usage)
Phonetics & phonology: not a meaning in itself, more an abstract meaning
Phonemes have a distinctive function
- The speech chain: speaker to perceiver
Thought > linguistic representation > vocal
tract movements > acoustics > auditory
perception > linguistic representation >
thought
Acoustic: different properties
Linguistic representation: thought/notion
triggers a representation e.g. different word(relations) or grammatical
structures => chosen meaning is reflected in the sound-pattern
Phonetics = the bottom part (actual production)
Phonology = mostly linguistic representation, abstract concept
Overlap in linguistic representation
2. What is phonology?
2.1Phonology vs phonetics
- Phonemic transcription: same phoneme in different language, but they are
realized in a different way
- Phonetics = how sounds are produced, articulation (science of speech sound)
- Phonology = how sounds pattern and function in a given (specific) language
- Different to draw a neat distinction between them
You need both for research/ better understanding
Broad distinction:
Phonetics = actual physical sounds
Phonology = abstract cognitive system (how sounds form and
function in the system)
[+ dia 13]
- Phonetics: 3 main branches
Articulatory phonetics: movements of
tongue, lips, speech organs => production
Acoustic phonetics: physical nature of speech
signal => transmission
Auditory phonetics: how ear receives speech
signal => reception
- Phonology: how meaning is expressed through sound in spoken language
How sounds (phones) are grouped into distinctive units (phonemes)
Page 3 of 47
, E.g. [k] and [kh] /k/
Meaning of sound at all levels of linguistic structure (word stress, sentence
stress, intonation)
3. Basic concepts
3.1The phoneme
- Abstract idea of a sound that has a distinctive value
- Speech = continuous flow of sound, no neat parts
If you only interrupt to breath/think, how can you cut up the flow into parts
(as a researcher)?
How do you segment speech? Happens subconsciously
Examples dia 19 (diphthong = 1 phoneme)
Cat: 3 segments
School: 4 segments
Ijs: 2 segments
Chocolade: 8 segments
Most native speakers agree on number of segments in a word
- Segments do not operate in isolation but combine to form morphemes & words
Different sound-combinations result in different morphemes and words
Different combinations of segments => different lexical meaning
Minimal pair: 2 words that differ in only 1 segment
Dia 21
Fight – fine : minimal pair
Night – knight: no minimal pair (same sound homophones)
His – hiss: minimal pair (/z/ vs /s/)
Gate – wait: minimal pair
This – thin: no minimal pair (voicing vs no voicing and s vs n)
These – those: minimal pair
Via minimal pairs: determine which speech sounds are
phonologically significant in give language
- phonemes: contrastive/distinctive units of sound that can be used to change
meaning
= smallest meaning-changing units in language
morphemes: smallest meaning-bearing units
Abstract entities phones: concrete sounds in actual usage
- Phoneme: generalisation that groups phones that are interpreted as similar in
structure and perhaps implement same function
3.2Allophonic variation
- Variants that a phoneme allows for
- Still similar to the ‘prototype’ of the phoneme
- E.g. dia 24 + dia 25: phoneme /l/
clear ‘l’
Devoiced ‘l’
Velar ‘l’ (back of your tongue is raised)
- 2 kinds of variation
Complementary distribution: context determines which allophone you use
Free variation: context in which a sound occurs doesn’t determine, can be
social/regional
Page 4 of 47
