BIOL235 Exam 2 Study Guide Graded A 2025

1. responsible for speaking ability (premotor for mouth and tongue, gives coordination of movement to speak, programs sound pattern of speech) - Broca's area 2. language comprehension (plans content of spoken words) - Wernicke's area 3. a set of interconnected brain areas that function in motivation, emotion, and memory - Limbic system 4. a gateway to the cortex: afferent signals synapse there, relayed to the cerebral cortex, provides some filtering of stimuli, diverting attention, can influence the nature of signals that go to the cerebrum - thalamus 5. inhibit muscle tone (contractions), inhibits unwanted movements (associated with Parkinson's/Huntington's disease), selects and maintains purposeful muscle activity while inhibiting useless movement, monitors and controls slow, sustained contractions (posture) - basal nuclei 6. influences voluntary movements to provide balance, posture, coordination, allows for motor learning/stores motor memory, helps provide smooth, coordinated body movement, compares motor cortex output with what is happening in the body - cerebellum 7. receives signals right from the thalamus when experiencing fearful stimuli, associated with the hippocampus and learning, ex. walking down a dark alley at night in a bad part of town will trigger the amygdala - amygdala 8. short-term memory (stored for a few minutes and can contain only a few items), items can be bumped from STM long-term memory (lasts years or more, generally stored in the cortex, includes factual info about the world and personal events) process may involve neurogenesis (making new neurons) 9. more experience means more likely to be in LTM - hippocampus 10. contains reticular formation, which has cardiovascular, respiratory, and reflexive centers for basic body functions - brain stem 11. Lateralization means the functions primarily occur on either the left or right side of the brain. However, there is communication between both hemispheres. The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain with 300 million axons. The left and right hemispheres communicate through the corpus callosum. - Corpus callosum and lateralization The cerebellum influences voluntary movements to provide balance, posture, and coordination. Provides smooth and coordinated body movement. 12. The basal nuclei helps with inhibiting unwanted movements. If there was no inhibition all unwanted movements caused by Parkinson's and/or Huntington's disease would be unchecked. It also inhibits muscle tone which is contractions in the muscle to maintain posture. The individual would have wild movements and poor contractions in the muscles. - How do the cerebellum and basal ganglia influence coordination of movement? Which helps with the inhibition of unwanted movements? What would it look like if this inhibition didn't happen? 13. The hippocampus deals with short term memory and long term memory. Short term memory can convert to long term memory using signals involving the hippocampus. Short term memory will convert to long term memory by rehearsal of information. 14. The abnormal proteins (Amyloid beta and tau) cause damage to neurons, and the hippocampus is one of the first areas affected by the disease. - Understand how the hippocampus is associated with learning, short term memory and long term memory and the role of abnormal proteins amyloid beta and tau in Alzheimer's. 15. Spinal nerves are mixed nerves that interact directly with the spinal cord; contains afferent and efferent signals. - Understand what a spinal nerve is - what two basic categories of information they carry. 16. Reflex arc - The neural pathway involved in accomplishing reflex activity is known as reflex arc, which typically includes five basic components. Sensory receptor, afferent pathway, integrating center, efferent pathway, effector. 17. Withdrawal Reflex- Both Afferent and Efferent pathways. Afferent neuron stimulate Efferent motor neurons supplying the biceps (Flexer). The afferent neuron stimulates the innerneurons that inhibit efferent neurons which supply the triceps (Extensor) which prevents it from contracting. - Know simple reflexes and reflex arc. Can you explain the withdrawal reflex? Mechanical nociceptors respond to mechanical damage and utilize myelinated (fast) pathways. Thermal nociceptors respond to temperature extremes and utilize myelinated (fast) pathways. Polymodal nociceptors respond to inflamed or damaged tissue and utilize unmyelinated (slow) pathways. Substance P is a NT that is released by nociceptors (pain receptors) from afferent pain terminals. 18. The analgesic pathway relies on the presence of opiate receptors. Endorphins and enkephalins are natural analgesics which are released from the analgesic pathway and bind to an opiate receptor which suppresses the release of substance P, this prevents further transmission of the pain signal. - Know fast vs. slow pain pathways, substance P, analgesic pathway and how analgesia works, endorphins, enkephalins. The ciliary muscle is used for focusing of the eye. When relaxed the lens is weak, flattened, has tight ligaments, and refracts less to focus on far objects. When contracted the lens is strong, rounded, has slackened ligaments, and refracts more to focus on near objects. Presbyopia (age-related far-sightedness) is when the lens of the eye loses flexibility with age. Can't focus on nearby objects. 19. Myopia (near-sightedness) is when the focal point changes from being on the retina to being in front of the retina. Can't focus on far away objects. - you should know how focusing happens. Know presbyopia, myopia basics. 20. cells specialized to admit light, refract light to focus images to back of retina - cornea 21. refract light to focus images to back of retina - lens 22. contains smooth muscle - iris 23. changes lens shape - ciliary muscle 24. contains photoreceptors, choroid layer nourishes retina - retina 25. contain molecules that respond to light and change membrane potentials - photoreceptors