BIOL 235 Final Exam Study Guide – Athabasca
University
Comprehensive BIOL 235 final exam study guide from
Athabasca University, covering key concepts in human
anatomy and physiology, including cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Latest Certified Exam Study Guide 2025/2026
Erythrocytes contain the enzyme - anscarbonic anhydrase
carbonic anhydrase catalyzes - ansthe conversion of metabolically produced C)2 and water
into carbonic acid
fixed phagocytic macrophages - ansremove most old erythrocytes from circulation
Location of fixed phagocytic macrophages - ansnarrow capillaries of the spleen
Undifferentiated cells called pluripotent stem cells reside - ansin the bone marrow
pluripotent stem cells - anscontinuously divide and develop myeloid stem cells and lymphoid
stem cells to give rise to each of the types of blood cells
emigration or diapedesis - ansThe process of leukocytes squeezing through the capillary
endothelium to exit the vasculature
agglutinins - ansgenetically-determined glycoprotein and glycolipid antigens found on the
surface of an erythrocyte
ESV - ansvolume of blood in the ventricle after ejection has been completed
Increase in ESV when - ansstroke volume is decreased
Three cations with important effect on heart function - ansK+, Ca2+, and Na+
Increased blood levels of NA+ - ansblocks Ca2+ inflow and decreases force of contraction
Excess in K+ - ansblocks generation of action potentials
pharynx - ansserves as a sound resonating chamber, contains tonsils, directs air flow
inferiorly
larynx - anspasses air form pharynx into windpipe, site of sound production
paranasal sinuses - ansresonates sound, not part of the pharynx
fauces - ansopening from oral cavity into pharynx
tertiary bronchus - anscarries air to a segment of a lung
terminal bronchiole - anscarries air directly into a respiratory bronchiole
pleural membranes - anssurround the lungs
surfactant - ansreduces surface tension at sites of gas exchange
alveoli - ansactual sites of gas exchange
eupnea - ansnormal, quiet breathing
costal breathing - ansshallow breathing using just the external intercostal muscles
compliance - ansamount of effort required to expand the lungs and chest wall
inspiratory capacity - anstidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume, usually about 3600 mL
in males
vital capacity - anstidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume;
usually about 4800 mL in males
functional residual capacity - ansresidual volume + expiratory reserve volume; usually about
2400 mL in males
Henry's law - ansstates that the amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to
the partial pressure of that gas and its solubility
Bohr effect - answhen pH decreases, O2 saturation of hemoglobin decreases
Dalton's law - anseach gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own partial pressure
,BIOL 235 Final Exam Study Guide – Athabasca
University
Comprehensive BIOL 235 final exam study guide from
Athabasca University, covering key concepts in human
anatomy and physiology, including cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Latest Certified Exam Study Guide 2025/2026
medulla oblongata - anssets basic rhythm of breathing
pons - ansincludes the pontine respiratory group
Blood is - ansa connective tissue that consists of blood plasma (liquid) plus formed elements
(red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets)
Whole blood - ansblood plasma and formed elements
Blood plasma - ansproteins, water, other solutes
Blood plasma proteins - ansalbumins (54%), globulins (36%), fibrinogens (7%)
Formed elements - ansred blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
Blood cell production - anshemopoesis, mainly occurs in red bone marrow after birth
Reticulocyte - ansfrom proerythrocyte, ejects nucleus
Average lifespan of an erythrocyte - ans120 days
Rate of RBC formation by red blood cells - ansequals the rate of RBC destruction by
macrophages
Emigration or diapedesis is - ansthe process by which phagocytic cells leave blood vessels
WBCs use to destroy pathogens - anslysozyme, defensins, and certain anions
Neutrophils - ansare usually the first and most numerous responders to an infection
Macrophages - ansreact more slowly to an infection than neutrophils do
Pluripotent stem cells are derived from - ansmesenchyme
Megakaryoblasts - ansplatelet precursor cells, develop into megakaryocytes
Platelet - ansfragment of megakaryocyte that is enclosed by a piece of plasma membrane
Platelet plug - anscan stop blood loss completely if the hole in a blood vessel is small enough
Hemostasis - anssequence of responses that stops bleeding, vascular spasm, platelet plug
formation, blood clotting
Blood clot - ansgel that contains formed elements of the blood entangled in fibrin threads
In blood clotting - anscoagulation factors are activated in sequence, resulting in a cascade of
reactions that includes positive feedback cycles
Extrinsic pathway of blood clotting - ansfewer steps, thromboplastic leaks into the blood
from cells outside (extrinsic to) blood vessels and initiates the formation of prothrombinase
Intrinsic pathway of blood clotting - ansmore complex, occurs more slowly, activators are in
direct contact with blood or contained within (intrinsic to) the blood. Outside tissue damage
is not needed.
clotting pathway - ansProthrombinase - prothrombin - thrombin - soluble fibrinogen -
insoluble fibrin - threads of clot
Common pathway - ansformation of prothrombinase marks the beginning of the____
In an incompatible blood transfusion - ansantibodies in the recipient's plasma bind to the
antigens on the donated RBCs which causes agglutination (clumping)
Antibodies in your plasma don't react with - ansantigens on your red blood cells
HDN - ansoccurs when maternal anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta and cause hemolysis
of fetal RBC
ABO blood typing - ansblood is mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum
, BIOL 235 Final Exam Study Guide – Athabasca
University
Comprehensive BIOL 235 final exam study guide from
Athabasca University, covering key concepts in human
anatomy and physiology, including cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Latest Certified Exam Study Guide 2025/2026
The heart is located in - ansthe mediastinum
Pericardium - anstriple-layered sac that surrounds and protects the heart
Pericardium two main parts - ansfibrous pericardium and serous pericardium
Fibrous pericardium - anssuperficial, tough, inelastic, bag that attaches to the diaphragm,
prevents overstretching of the heart, anchors the heart in the mediastinum
Serous pericardium - ansparietal layer, visceral layer (epicardium)
Visceral layer of the serous pericardium - ansone of the layers of the heart wall
Epicardium - ansOuter layer of the heart, two tissue layers visceral layer of the serous
pericardium, underneath this is adipose tissue that houses the major coronary and cardiac
vessels of the heart
Mycardium - ansmiddle muscular layer, responsible for the pumping action of the heart, 95%
of the heart wall, cardiac muscle fibers are organized in bundles that swirl diagonally around
the heart, striated like skeletal muscle but involuntary like smooth muscle
Endocardium - ansinnermost heart layer, thin layer of endothelium over a thin layer of
connective tissue, provides smooth lining for the chambers of the heart and covers the valves,
continuous with the endothelial lining of the large blood vessels attached to the heart
Sulci - ansgrooves that contain blood vessels and fat that mark the external boundaries
between the various chambers
Blood flows into the right atrium through - anssuperior vena cava, inferior vena cava,
coronary sinus
Blood flows into the left atrium through - ansfour pulmonary veins
Fibrous skeleton of the heart - ansfibrous rings support the four valves of the heart and are
fused to one another
AV valves - ansbetween an atrium and a ventricle
Bicuspid valve - ansleft atrium and left ventricle
Tricuspid valve - ansright atrium and right ventricle
Heart valves - ansprevent the backflow of blood
The left side of the heart - anspumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation to all
tissue of the body except the air sacs of the lungs
The right side of the heart - anspumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary circulation to the
air sacs
The left and right coronary arteries deliver - ansblood to the heart
Coronary veins - ansdrain blood from the heart into the coronary sinus
Cardiac muscle fibers connect to neighboring fibers by - ansintercalated discs which contain
desmosomes and gap junctions
Autorhythmic fibers - anspacemaker, form the cardiac conduction system
Cardiac conduction systems propagate - anssinoatrial node, atrioventricular node,
atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His), right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
Authorhythmic fibers pace - ans100 times a minute, natural pacemaker
University
Comprehensive BIOL 235 final exam study guide from
Athabasca University, covering key concepts in human
anatomy and physiology, including cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Latest Certified Exam Study Guide 2025/2026
Erythrocytes contain the enzyme - anscarbonic anhydrase
carbonic anhydrase catalyzes - ansthe conversion of metabolically produced C)2 and water
into carbonic acid
fixed phagocytic macrophages - ansremove most old erythrocytes from circulation
Location of fixed phagocytic macrophages - ansnarrow capillaries of the spleen
Undifferentiated cells called pluripotent stem cells reside - ansin the bone marrow
pluripotent stem cells - anscontinuously divide and develop myeloid stem cells and lymphoid
stem cells to give rise to each of the types of blood cells
emigration or diapedesis - ansThe process of leukocytes squeezing through the capillary
endothelium to exit the vasculature
agglutinins - ansgenetically-determined glycoprotein and glycolipid antigens found on the
surface of an erythrocyte
ESV - ansvolume of blood in the ventricle after ejection has been completed
Increase in ESV when - ansstroke volume is decreased
Three cations with important effect on heart function - ansK+, Ca2+, and Na+
Increased blood levels of NA+ - ansblocks Ca2+ inflow and decreases force of contraction
Excess in K+ - ansblocks generation of action potentials
pharynx - ansserves as a sound resonating chamber, contains tonsils, directs air flow
inferiorly
larynx - anspasses air form pharynx into windpipe, site of sound production
paranasal sinuses - ansresonates sound, not part of the pharynx
fauces - ansopening from oral cavity into pharynx
tertiary bronchus - anscarries air to a segment of a lung
terminal bronchiole - anscarries air directly into a respiratory bronchiole
pleural membranes - anssurround the lungs
surfactant - ansreduces surface tension at sites of gas exchange
alveoli - ansactual sites of gas exchange
eupnea - ansnormal, quiet breathing
costal breathing - ansshallow breathing using just the external intercostal muscles
compliance - ansamount of effort required to expand the lungs and chest wall
inspiratory capacity - anstidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume, usually about 3600 mL
in males
vital capacity - anstidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume;
usually about 4800 mL in males
functional residual capacity - ansresidual volume + expiratory reserve volume; usually about
2400 mL in males
Henry's law - ansstates that the amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to
the partial pressure of that gas and its solubility
Bohr effect - answhen pH decreases, O2 saturation of hemoglobin decreases
Dalton's law - anseach gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own partial pressure
,BIOL 235 Final Exam Study Guide – Athabasca
University
Comprehensive BIOL 235 final exam study guide from
Athabasca University, covering key concepts in human
anatomy and physiology, including cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Latest Certified Exam Study Guide 2025/2026
medulla oblongata - anssets basic rhythm of breathing
pons - ansincludes the pontine respiratory group
Blood is - ansa connective tissue that consists of blood plasma (liquid) plus formed elements
(red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets)
Whole blood - ansblood plasma and formed elements
Blood plasma - ansproteins, water, other solutes
Blood plasma proteins - ansalbumins (54%), globulins (36%), fibrinogens (7%)
Formed elements - ansred blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
Blood cell production - anshemopoesis, mainly occurs in red bone marrow after birth
Reticulocyte - ansfrom proerythrocyte, ejects nucleus
Average lifespan of an erythrocyte - ans120 days
Rate of RBC formation by red blood cells - ansequals the rate of RBC destruction by
macrophages
Emigration or diapedesis is - ansthe process by which phagocytic cells leave blood vessels
WBCs use to destroy pathogens - anslysozyme, defensins, and certain anions
Neutrophils - ansare usually the first and most numerous responders to an infection
Macrophages - ansreact more slowly to an infection than neutrophils do
Pluripotent stem cells are derived from - ansmesenchyme
Megakaryoblasts - ansplatelet precursor cells, develop into megakaryocytes
Platelet - ansfragment of megakaryocyte that is enclosed by a piece of plasma membrane
Platelet plug - anscan stop blood loss completely if the hole in a blood vessel is small enough
Hemostasis - anssequence of responses that stops bleeding, vascular spasm, platelet plug
formation, blood clotting
Blood clot - ansgel that contains formed elements of the blood entangled in fibrin threads
In blood clotting - anscoagulation factors are activated in sequence, resulting in a cascade of
reactions that includes positive feedback cycles
Extrinsic pathway of blood clotting - ansfewer steps, thromboplastic leaks into the blood
from cells outside (extrinsic to) blood vessels and initiates the formation of prothrombinase
Intrinsic pathway of blood clotting - ansmore complex, occurs more slowly, activators are in
direct contact with blood or contained within (intrinsic to) the blood. Outside tissue damage
is not needed.
clotting pathway - ansProthrombinase - prothrombin - thrombin - soluble fibrinogen -
insoluble fibrin - threads of clot
Common pathway - ansformation of prothrombinase marks the beginning of the____
In an incompatible blood transfusion - ansantibodies in the recipient's plasma bind to the
antigens on the donated RBCs which causes agglutination (clumping)
Antibodies in your plasma don't react with - ansantigens on your red blood cells
HDN - ansoccurs when maternal anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta and cause hemolysis
of fetal RBC
ABO blood typing - ansblood is mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum
, BIOL 235 Final Exam Study Guide – Athabasca
University
Comprehensive BIOL 235 final exam study guide from
Athabasca University, covering key concepts in human
anatomy and physiology, including cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Latest Certified Exam Study Guide 2025/2026
The heart is located in - ansthe mediastinum
Pericardium - anstriple-layered sac that surrounds and protects the heart
Pericardium two main parts - ansfibrous pericardium and serous pericardium
Fibrous pericardium - anssuperficial, tough, inelastic, bag that attaches to the diaphragm,
prevents overstretching of the heart, anchors the heart in the mediastinum
Serous pericardium - ansparietal layer, visceral layer (epicardium)
Visceral layer of the serous pericardium - ansone of the layers of the heart wall
Epicardium - ansOuter layer of the heart, two tissue layers visceral layer of the serous
pericardium, underneath this is adipose tissue that houses the major coronary and cardiac
vessels of the heart
Mycardium - ansmiddle muscular layer, responsible for the pumping action of the heart, 95%
of the heart wall, cardiac muscle fibers are organized in bundles that swirl diagonally around
the heart, striated like skeletal muscle but involuntary like smooth muscle
Endocardium - ansinnermost heart layer, thin layer of endothelium over a thin layer of
connective tissue, provides smooth lining for the chambers of the heart and covers the valves,
continuous with the endothelial lining of the large blood vessels attached to the heart
Sulci - ansgrooves that contain blood vessels and fat that mark the external boundaries
between the various chambers
Blood flows into the right atrium through - anssuperior vena cava, inferior vena cava,
coronary sinus
Blood flows into the left atrium through - ansfour pulmonary veins
Fibrous skeleton of the heart - ansfibrous rings support the four valves of the heart and are
fused to one another
AV valves - ansbetween an atrium and a ventricle
Bicuspid valve - ansleft atrium and left ventricle
Tricuspid valve - ansright atrium and right ventricle
Heart valves - ansprevent the backflow of blood
The left side of the heart - anspumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation to all
tissue of the body except the air sacs of the lungs
The right side of the heart - anspumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary circulation to the
air sacs
The left and right coronary arteries deliver - ansblood to the heart
Coronary veins - ansdrain blood from the heart into the coronary sinus
Cardiac muscle fibers connect to neighboring fibers by - ansintercalated discs which contain
desmosomes and gap junctions
Autorhythmic fibers - anspacemaker, form the cardiac conduction system
Cardiac conduction systems propagate - anssinoatrial node, atrioventricular node,
atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His), right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
Authorhythmic fibers pace - ans100 times a minute, natural pacemaker
