Attentional Processes
p
p
TYPESpOFpATTENTION
1. SelectivepAttention
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nespwhilepthey'repspendingptimepwit
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entionptoptwopthingspatponce,pwepare
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neptaskpforpaplongptime?pIfpyoupare,py
ouparepgoodpatpusingpsustainedpatten
tion.pThisphappenspwhenpwepcanpconc MULTITASKING
p
entrateponpaptask,pevent,porpfeaturepi
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unimportantpfeaturespofpthepenviron ntion.pHepcannotpfullypwatchphispprogram,pandp
mentpandpattendingptopwhatpreallypm hepcannotpfullyppaypattentionptophisphomewor
atters.pItpispthepattentionpwepusepwhe k.pHowpdoespthispaffectpJohn?pLet'spfindpout.p(
npweparepmakingpstepsptowardpappar dividedpattention)
ticularpend. Theppomodoroptechnique
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shpapresearchpprojectpbypthependpofpthe ThepPomodoroptechniquepispapsimplepyetpeffect
pday.pYoupmightpstartpbypmakingpappla iveptoolpforpfocusedpworkpwithpplannedpbreakspi
n,porpyoupmightpjumppintopitpandpatta npbetween.pFrancescopCirillopcoinedptheptermp“p
ckpdifferentppartspofpitpasptheypcome. omodoro,”pwhichptranslatesptoptomato,pinpthepla
pYoupkeepptrackpofpwhatpyou'vepdone,p tep1980spafterptheptomato-
whatpmorepyouphaveptopdo,pandphow shapedptimerphepusedpaspapuniversitypstudent.pSo
pyouparepprogressing.pYouparepfocusi ,phowpdoespitpwork?pLet’spbreakpdownpappomod
ngponpthesepthingspinporderptopreachpt oropintervalpsteppbypstep:
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kepplaceparoundpthem.pAspwithpchangepbli hat'spimportantpandpignorepdistractions;ph
ndness,pchangespthatpoccurpduringpinatt owever,psomepofpthesepdistractionspmaypb
entionalpblindnessparepoftenpobviouspafte epimportant.
rpbeingppointedpout.pChoosingptopfocusp • Forpexample,pimaginepthatpyou'repdrivingp
onponepstimuluspandpfilteringpoutpothers downpthepstreetpatprushphour,pandpnoticep
pispcalledpattentionalpselection.pInporderpt thatpthepdriverpinpfrontpofpyouphaspslam
opunderstandpthepdifferencepbetweenpbl medponphispbrakes.pApsplit-
indnesspversuspinattentionalpblindness,p secondplater,pwhilepyouparepstillpbusyppro
it'spimportantptopconsiderpwherepthepobs cessingpwhatpjustphappened,papdeerpdar
erver'spfocuspispat. tspontoptheproadpfrompthepright.pAtpthisppo
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bleptopprocesspthepsecondpeventpwithpen
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asons.pPerhapspthepmostpcommonpreas
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onpinvolvespaphuman'splimitedpattention
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pfocusponpeverythingpinpitspenvironmentp focusesponpattentionpaspapresource.pItps
atpapsingleptime. uggestspthatptargetponepwillptakepupppre
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changepblindness.pIfpsomeonepseespthep icultptopprocessptargetptwopforpupptophalf
samepscenepdaypafterpday,ptheypmaypco papsecond.
meptopexpectpthatpitpwillpnotpchange. • Inhibitionptheory:pAccordingptopthepinhi
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angepwhetherpchangepblindnesspoccurs. get,pthepmindpfocusesponpidentifyingpinf
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nesspmorepoften.pConditionspthatpimpac dpshape,porpwhetherpitpispapletterporpnum
tpattention,psuchpaspattentionpdeficitpdis ber.pForpaboutphalfpapsecondpafterward,p
ordersporpdrugpuse,pmaypalsopinfluencep yourpmindpsuppressespincomingpinform
thepratespatpwhichpchangepblindnesspca ationptoppreventpconfusion.pInpotherpword
npoccur. s,pthepattentionalpblinkpoccurspduringpthep
timepyou'repthinkingpaboutpwhatpyou've
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pseen.
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theplatep1990spbypRonaldpRensinkpandphisp suggestspthatpwhenpyou'repbusypthinkingp
team.pSincepthen,pmultiplepexperimentsp aboutptargetpone,pyoupessentiallyp'forget'p
havepbeenpconductedptopbetterpunderst aboutptargetptwo.
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spoccurspandpwhypitphappens.pApfewpexa terferenceptheory,pitemspshownpinpapser
mplespofpthesepexperimentsparepprovide iesparepcompetingpwithpeachpotherpinpyou
dpinptheptablepbelow: rplimitedpworkingpmemory.pTherefore,pcon
fusionpcanpoccurpwhenpyouptryptoprecallp
whatpyoupsaw.
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d-
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.
pfeaturesptopthepcapacity-
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apsheetpofppaper.pNopwordspatpall
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xperiments,pthepsupportpdependsponpthepspeci • Bypcomparingpthepperformancepofppeopl
ficpprocedurespused.pHowever,presearcherspdopa epinpthesepthreeptasks.pStrooppcanpmakep
greepthatpattentionalpblinkpcanphavepreal- inferencesponpindividual’spprocessingpa
pworldpconsequences.pInterestingly,ponepstudy ndpspeed
pshowedpthatpattentionalpblinkpcanpbepreducedp • Frompthispseeminglypsimplepresearch,pap
inpdurationpbyp'training'pourpbrains.pResearchersp surprisinglypinsightfulptestpwaspdeveloped.
alsopfoundpthatppeoplepwhopplayedpfast- • ThepStrooppTest,palsopknownpaspthepStropp
pacedpvideopgamesphadpapquickerpattentionalp ColorpWordpTest,porpStrooppEffectpTest,pispap
blinkprecoverypthanpthosepwhopplayedppuzzlepga neuropsychologicalptestpusedptopmeasu
mes.pThepneedptopquicklypidentifypandpeliminate repinhibitionpofpcognitivepinterference,pf
poneptargetpafterpanotherpprovidedpincentivepfor rontalplobepfunctioning,pselectivepattent
pthepbrainptopreducepattentionalpblink. ion,pandpcognitivepflexibility.
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eactionptimespofpindividualspasppartpofphispw ormationpwepusuallypprocesspautomatic
ork allyp(readingpwords).pThisptestpandpvariat
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papshortpandpsimpleptestpthatpcouldpeasily
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pshowphowpquickpsomeone’spreactionpti
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p
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orpnamepdopnotpmatchpthanpwhenpthepfon
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nce. • Inpthepearlyp1950s,pcognitivepscientistpC
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nformationpispprocessedpnearlypeffortle tphepreferredptopaspthepcocktailppartypprob
sslypwhilepothersprequirepmorepattentio lem.pCherrypwonderedphowpitpwaspthatp
nptopsortpwhilepansweringpthepmostpbasi peoplepcouldphavepprivateporpindividualp
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differentpcolor nponepconversation.pOutpofpthispinitialpres
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archpandpconcludedpthatpthepbrainpprocessespi
theorypwaspusedptophelppwithpradar,pandp
nformationpinpstages,pultimatelypblockingpoutpu
thepprocesspdeterminedpradarpfrompotherp
nnecessarypsound.pIfpyoupwerepinpapcrowdedpan
backgroundpnoise.
dpnoisypsubwaypcar,pforpexample,pyoupwouldpha
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veptoppaypverypclosepattentionptopwhatptheppers
etectionptheorypinp1860.
onpnextptopyoupispsaying.pBroadbent'spfilterpmo
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delpsuggestspthatpatpsomeppointpinpthepreceivingp
gnalpdetectionptheory.pJohnpSwetspandpD
process,pyourpbrainpwouldpblockpoutpunnecessar
avidpGreenpfeltphowpsignalpdetectionpthe
ypinformationpandpallowpinponlypthepinformationp
orypwaspbetterpthanpthepotherpoptionspbei
thatpitphaspdeemedpimportant.
ngpofferedpatptheptime.
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atic,pbutpthispexamplepshouldpemphasizepthepp rm,pandpcorrectprejection.
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ationpofpanpexperienceporpevent.pThispalsophigh
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p
p
TYPESpOFpATTENTION
1. SelectivepAttention
• Takespplacepwhenpwepblockpoutpcert
ainpfeaturespofpourpenvironmentpandp
focusponponepparticularpfeature,plikept
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yourpfriend.
2. DividedpAttention
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you'replikepmostppeople,pyoupdopthatpapl
ot.pMaybepyouptalkptopapfriendponpthepp
honepwhilepyou'repstraighteningpuppt
hephouse.pNowadays,ptherepareppeo
plepeverywhereptextingponptheirppho
nespwhilepthey'repspendingptimepwit
hpsomeone.pWhenpwepareppayingpatt
entionptoptwopthingspatponce,pwepare
pusingpdividedpattention.
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neptaskpforpaplongptime?pIfpyoupare,py
ouparepgoodpatpusingpsustainedpatten
tion.pThisphappenspwhenpwepcanpconc MULTITASKING
p
entrateponpaptask,pevent,porpfeaturepi
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eriodpofptime hepsameptime.pWhenpJohnpispmultitasking,pheph
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mentpandpattendingptopwhatpreallypm hepcannotpfullyppaypattentionptophisphomewor
atters.pItpispthepattentionpwepusepwhe k.pHowpdoespthispaffectpJohn?pLet'spfindpout.p(
npweparepmakingpstepsptowardpappar dividedpattention)
ticularpend. Theppomodoroptechnique
• Forpexample,pmaybepyoupneedptopfini
shpapresearchpprojectpbypthependpofpthe ThepPomodoroptechniquepispapsimplepyetpeffect
pday.pYoupmightpstartpbypmakingpappla iveptoolpforpfocusedpworkpwithpplannedpbreakspi
n,porpyoupmightpjumppintopitpandpatta npbetween.pFrancescopCirillopcoinedptheptermp“p
ckpdifferentppartspofpitpasptheypcome. omodoro,”pwhichptranslatesptoptomato,pinpthepla
pYoupkeepptrackpofpwhatpyou'vepdone,p tep1980spafterptheptomato-
whatpmorepyouphaveptopdo,pandphow shapedptimerphepusedpaspapuniversitypstudent.pSo
pyouparepprogressing.pYouparepfocusi ,phowpdoespitpwork?pLet’spbreakpdownpappomod
ngponpthesepthingspinporderptopreachpt oropintervalpsteppbypstep:
hepgoalpofpapfinishedpresearchppaper
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ion.
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CHANGE VS
, thuspdoesn'tpnoticepthepchangespthatpta amountspofpinputpsopwepcanpfocusponpw
kepplaceparoundpthem.pAspwithpchangepbli hat'spimportantpandpignorepdistractions;ph
ndness,pchangespthatpoccurpduringpinatt owever,psomepofpthesepdistractionspmaypb
entionalpblindnessparepoftenpobviouspafte epimportant.
rpbeingppointedpout.pChoosingptopfocusp • Forpexample,pimaginepthatpyou'repdrivingp
onponepstimuluspandpfilteringpoutpothers downpthepstreetpatprushphour,pandpnoticep
pispcalledpattentionalpselection.pInporderpt thatpthepdriverpinpfrontpofpyouphaspslam
opunderstandpthepdifferencepbetweenpbl medponphispbrakes.pApsplit-
indnesspversuspinattentionalpblindness,p secondplater,pwhilepyouparepstillpbusyppro
it'spimportantptopconsiderpwherepthepobs cessingpwhatpjustphappened,papdeerpdar
erver'spfocuspispat. tspontoptheproadpfrompthepright.pAtpthisppo
int,pit'sphighlypunlikelypthatpyoupwillpbepa
CausespofpChangepBlindness
bleptopprocesspthepsecondpeventpwithpen
• Changepblindnesspoccurspforpmultiplepre oughptimeptopreactpproperly.
asons.pPerhapspthepmostpcommonpreas
WhatpCausespAttentionalpBlink?
onpinvolvespaphuman'splimitedpattention
presources.pThephumanpbrainpispunablepto • Attentionalpcapacityptheory:pThisptheoryp
pfocusponpeverythingpinpitspenvironmentp focusesponpattentionpaspapresource.pItps
atpapsingleptime. uggestspthatptargetponepwillptakepupppre
• Previouspexperiencespmaypalsopresultpinp ciouspattentionalpresources,pmakingpitpdiff
changepblindness.pIfpsomeonepseespthep icultptopprocessptargetptwopforpupptophalf
samepscenepdaypafterpday,ptheypmaypco papsecond.
meptopexpectpthatpitpwillpnotpchange. • Inhibitionptheory:pAccordingptopthepinhi
• Howpanpobjectpisppresentedpmaypalsopch bitionptheory,pwhenpdetectingpthepfirstptar
angepwhetherpchangepblindnesspoccurs. get,pthepmindpfocusesponpidentifyingpinf
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nesspmorepoften.pConditionspthatpimpac dpshape,porpwhetherpitpispapletterporpnum
tpattention,psuchpaspattentionpdeficitpdis ber.pForpaboutphalfpapsecondpafterward,p
ordersporpdrugpuse,pmaypalsopinfluencep yourpmindpsuppressespincomingpinform
thepratespatpwhichpchangepblindnesspca ationptoppreventpconfusion.pInpotherpword
npoccur. s,pthepattentionalpblinkpoccurspduringpthep
timepyou'repthinkingpaboutpwhatpyou've
ExperimentsponpChangepBlindness
pseen.
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theplatep1990spbypRonaldpRensinkpandphisp suggestspthatpwhenpyou'repbusypthinkingp
team.pSincepthen,pmultiplepexperimentsp aboutptargetpone,pyoupessentiallyp'forget'p
havepbeenpconductedptopbetterpunderst aboutptargetptwo.
andpthepsituationspthatpchangepblindnes • Interferenceptheory:pAspstatedpinpthepin
spoccurspandpwhypitphappens.pApfewpexa terferenceptheory,pitemspshownpinpapser
mplespofpthesepexperimentsparepprovide iesparepcompetingpwithpeachpotherpinpyou
dpinptheptablepbelow: rplimitedpworkingpmemory.pTherefore,pcon
fusionpcanpoccurpwhenpyouptryptoprecallp
whatpyoupsaw.
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pfeaturesptopthepcapacity-
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apsheetpofppaper.pNopwordspatpall
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xperiments,pthepsupportpdependsponpthepspeci • Bypcomparingpthepperformancepofppeopl
ficpprocedurespused.pHowever,presearcherspdopa epinpthesepthreeptasks.pStrooppcanpmakep
greepthatpattentionalpblinkpcanphavepreal- inferencesponpindividual’spprocessingpa
pworldpconsequences.pInterestingly,ponepstudy ndpspeed
pshowedpthatpattentionalpblinkpcanpbepreducedp • Frompthispseeminglypsimplepresearch,pap
inpdurationpbyp'training'pourpbrains.pResearchersp surprisinglypinsightfulptestpwaspdeveloped.
alsopfoundpthatppeoplepwhopplayedpfast- • ThepStrooppTest,palsopknownpaspthepStropp
pacedpvideopgamesphadpapquickerpattentionalp ColorpWordpTest,porpStrooppEffectpTest,pispap
blinkprecoverypthanpthosepwhopplayedppuzzlepga neuropsychologicalptestpusedptopmeasu
mes.pThepneedptopquicklypidentifypandpeliminate repinhibitionpofpcognitivepinterference,pf
poneptargetpafterpanotherpprovidedpincentivepfor rontalplobepfunctioning,pselectivepattent
pthepbrainptopreducepattentionalpblink. ion,pandpcognitivepflexibility.
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eactionptimespofpindividualspasppartpofphispw ormationpwepusuallypprocesspautomatic
ork allyp(readingpwords).pThisptestpandpvariat
• HepcreatedpthepStrooppTestp– ionsphavepbeenpstudiedpextensively,pinclu
papshortpandpsimpleptestpthatpcouldpeasily
dingpthepnewestpformspofpbrainpimaging,pin
pshowphowpquickpsomeone’spreactionpti
cludingpCAT,pMRI,pfMRI,pandpPETpscans.
mepwas WhatpispSelectivepAuditorypAttention?
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WhatpispthepStroopp Effect?
p
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atpmoreptimepispneededptopnamepthepcol
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orpnamepdopnotpmatchpthanpwhenpthepfon
tpcolorpandpthepnamepdopmatchp(Figurep
COCKTAILpPARTYpEFFECT
1.).pThispispknownpaspcognitivepinterfere
nce. • Inpthepearlyp1950s,pcognitivepscientistpC
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nformationpispprocessedpnearlypeffortle tphepreferredptopaspthepcocktailppartypprob
sslypwhilepothersprequirepmorepattentio lem.pCherrypwonderedphowpitpwaspthatp
nptopsortpwhilepansweringpthepmostpbasi peoplepcouldphavepprivateporpindividualp
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me.pAspapresultpofphispresearch,pCherrypca
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2. Aplistpofpcolorpnamespprintedpinpinkpofpap therpsoundspinporderptopactivelypfocuspo
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, SelectivepAuditorypAttention
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DonaldpBroadbentpexpandedponpCherry'sprese
• DuringpWorldpWarpII,pthepsignalpdetectionp
archpandpconcludedpthatpthepbrainpprocessespi
theorypwaspusedptophelppwithpradar,pandp
nformationpinpstages,pultimatelypblockingpoutpu
thepprocesspdeterminedpradarpfrompotherp
nnecessarypsound.pIfpyoupwerepinpapcrowdedpan
backgroundpnoise.
dpnoisypsubwaypcar,pforpexample,pyoupwouldpha
• GustavpFechnerpdevelopedpthepsignalpd
veptoppaypverypclosepattentionptopwhatptheppers
etectionptheorypinp1860.
onpnextptopyoupispsaying.pBroadbent'spfilterpmo
• Inp1966,ptwoppsychophysicspusedpthepsi
delpsuggestspthatpatpsomeppointpinpthepreceivingp
gnalpdetectionptheory.pJohnpSwetspandpD
process,pyourpbrainpwouldpblockpoutpunnecessar
avidpGreenpfeltphowpsignalpdetectionpthe
ypinformationpandpallowpinponlypthepinformationp
orypwaspbetterpthanpthepotherpoptionspbei
thatpitphaspdeemedpimportant.
ngpofferedpatptheptime.
CONFIRMATIONp BIAS
Testingp Signalp Detectionp Theory
Ispwhenpselectivepattentionpispusedptopproducepap
Whenptestingpthepsignalpdetectionptheory,papsi
desirablepinterpretationpofpapmessagepthatpvali
gnalpispgivenporpnot,pandpthepobserverprecogni
datespapperson'spbeliefs.
zespthepsignalporpnot.pThepoutcomespofpthepsign
Confirmationpbiaspispnotpalwayspquitepsopdram alpdetectionpexperimentparephit,pmiss,pfalsepala
atic,pbutpthispexamplepshouldpemphasizepthepp rm,pandpcorrectprejection.
otentialpdangerspofpselectivephearing,pwhichpc
annotpalwayspbeptrustedpaspapfactualpinterpret
ationpofpanpexperienceporpevent.pThispalsophigh
lightsponepofpthepmoreprecentpdevelopmentspinp
research,pwhichpsuggestspthatpselectivepauditory
pattentionpispverypoftenpslantedptowardspappotent
ialprewardporppositivepoutcome.
SIGNALpDETECTIONpTHEORY
• Thepdetectionpofpthepstimuluspdependsponp
bothpthepintensitypofpthepstimuluspandpp
hysical/psychologicalpstatepofpthepindivi
dual
Wherepdoespsignalpdetectionptheorypcomespf
rom?
• Psychologypispinterestedpinpmeasuringpourp
sensorypsensitivity.pThepleadingptheorypisp
therepwaspapthresholdp–
pminimumpvaluepbelowpwhichppeoplepco
uldpnotpdetectpapstimulus.pHowever,pitph
aspchangedpfrompdeterminingpapthreshol
dptoptestingphowpobserversprespondptopsi
gnals
