UNIT 1 - QUANTUM MECHANICS
INTRODUCTION:
Quantum mechanics is a physical science dealing with the behaviour of matter and energy on the scale of
atoms and subatomic particles or waves.
The term "quantum mechanics" was first coined by Max Born in 1924. The acceptance by the general
physics community of quantum mechanics is due to its accurate prediction of the physical behaviour of
systems, including systems where Newtonian mechanics fails.
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT:
There are some phenomena such as interference, diffraction and polarization which can be explained by
considering light as wave only.
On the other hand phenomenon such as photoelectric effect and Compton Effect can be explained by
considering light as a particle only.
When we visualize light as a wave, we need to forget its particle aspect completely and vice versa. This
type of behavior of light as a wave as well as particle is known as dual nature of light.
Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect: When a photon of energy hυ is incident on the
surface of the metal, a part of energy Φ is used in liberating the electron from the metal.
This energy is known as the work function of the metal. The rest of energy is given to
the electron so that is acquires kinetic energy ½ mv2. Thus a photon of energy hυ is
completely absorbed by the emitter.
Energy of photon = Energy needed to liberate the electron + Maximum K.E of the liberated electron
hυ = Φ + KEmax
hυ = Φ + ½ mv2max
The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. This equation can explain all the features
of the photoelectric effect.
Compton Effect
When a beam of high frequency radiation (x-ray or gamma-
ray) is scattered by the loosely bound electrons present in the
scatterer, there are also radiations of longer wavelength along
with original wavelength in the scattered radiation. This
phenomenon is known as Compton Effect.
When a photon of energy hν collides with the electron, some
of the energy is given to this electron. Due to this energy, the
electron gains kinetic energy and photon loses energy. Hence scattered photon will have lower energy hν ’
that is longer wavelength than the incident one.
(λ’ – λ) = h/mc [1-cosΦ] where h/mc = λC = Compton wavelength = 0.02424Å
Page 1 of 93
,De Broglie hypothesis:
Louis De Broglie a French Physicist put forward his bold ideas like this
“Since nature loves symmetry, if the radiation behaves as a particle under certain circumstances and
waves under other circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behave as
particles also exhibit properties attributable to waves under appropriate circumstance and those types of
waves are termed as matter waves.
All matter can exhibit wave-like behavior. For example, a beam of electrons can be diffracted just like a
beam of light or a water wave. The concept that matter behaves like a wave was proposed by Louis de
Broglie in 1924. It is also referred to as the de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves. On the other hand de
Broglie hypothesis is the combination of wave nature and particle nature.
If ‘ E ’ is the energy of a photon of radiation and the same energy can be written for a wave as follows
E = mc2 ---(1) (particle nature) and E = hν = hc/λ ---(2) (wave nature)
Comparing eqns (1) & (2) we get
mc2 = hc/λ or λ = h/mc = h/p
λ = h/p ; where λ = De Broglie wavelength
Particles of the matter also exhibit wavelike properties and those waves are known as matter waves.
Expression for de Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron
De Broglie wavelength for a matter wave is given by
λ = h/p ; where λ = De Broglie wavelength -------------(1)
From eqn. (1) we find that, if the particles like electrons are accelerated to various velocities, we can
produce waves of various wavelengths. Thus higher the electron velocity, smaller will be the de-Broglie
wavelength. If velocity v is given to an electron by accelerating it through a potential difference V, then
the work done on the electron is eV. This work done is converted to kinetic energy of electron. Hence, we
can write
½ mv2 = eV
mv = (2meV)1/2 -------------(2)
But eqn.(1) can be written as
λ = h/mv -------------------(3)
Substituting eqn.(2) in eqn.(3) we get
λ = h/(2meV)1/2
Page 2 of 93
,PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES:
1. The wavelength of a matter wave is inversely related to its particles momentum
2. Matter wave can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and undergo interference
3. The position and momentum of the material particles cannot be determined accurately and
simultaneously.
4. The amplitude of the matter waves at a particular region and time depends on the probability of
finding the particle at the same region and time.
Wave packet:
Two or more waves of slightly different wavelengths alternately interfere and reinforce so that an infinite
succession of groups of waves or wave packets are produced.
The velocity of the individual wave in a wave packet is called phase velocity of the wave and is
represented by Vp.
+
=
+
Vg
Vp
Phase, Group and particle velocities:
According to de Broglie each particle of matter (like electron, proton, neutron etc) is associated with a de
Broglie wave; this de Broglie wave may be regarded as a wave packet, consisting of a group of waves. A
number of frequencies mixed so that the resultant wave has a beginning and an end forms the group. Each
of the component waves propagates with a definite velocity called wave velocity or phase velocity.
Expression for Phase velocity:
A wave can be represented by
Y= A sin (ωt – kx) ---------- (1)
Where k = ω/v = wave number (rad/m) ; ω = Angular frequency (rad/s)
When a particle moves around a circle ν times/s, sweeps out 2πν rad/s
In eqn.(1) the term (ωt – kx) gives the phase of the oscillating mass
(ωt – kx) = constant for a periodic wave
d (ωt – kx) /dt = 0 or ω – k(dx/dt) = 0 or dx/dt =ω/k
Page 3 of 93
, vp = ω/k
When a wave packet or group consists of a number of component waves each traveling with slightly
different velocity, the wave packet (group) travels with a velocity different from the velocities of
component waves of the group; this velocity is called Group velocity.
Expression for Group velocity:
A wave group can be mathematically represented by the superposition of individual waves of different
wavelengths. The interference between these individual waves results in the variation of amplitude that
defines the shape of the group. If all the waves that constitute a group travel with the same velocity, the
group will also travel with the same velocity.
If however the wave velocity is dependent on the wavelength the group, velocity will be different from
the velocity of the individual waves.
The simplest wave group is one in which two continuous waves are superimposed. Let the two waves be
represented by
y1 = a cos (ω1t – k1x) and y2 = a cos (ω2t – k2x)
The resultant
y = y1 + y2 = a cos (ω1t – k1x) + a cos (ω2t – k2x)
- k - k 2 k1 k 2
y 2a cos 1 2 t - 1 2 x cos 1 t - x
2 2 2 2
1 2 k k2
Let and 1 k
2 2
- k - k
y 2a cos 1 2 t - 1 2 x cos( t - kx)
2 2
This equation represents a wave of angular frequency ω and wave number k whose amplitude is
modulated by a wave of angular frequency (ω1 – ω2)/2 and wave number (k1 – k2)/2 and has a maximum
value of 2a. The effect of this modulation is to produce a succession of wave groups as shown below:
The velocity with which this envelope moves, i.e., the velocity of the maximum amplitude of the group is
2
given by vg 1
k1 k2 k
If a group contains a number of frequency components in an infinitely small frequency interval (for Δk
→0), then the above expression may be written as
Page 4 of 93
INTRODUCTION:
Quantum mechanics is a physical science dealing with the behaviour of matter and energy on the scale of
atoms and subatomic particles or waves.
The term "quantum mechanics" was first coined by Max Born in 1924. The acceptance by the general
physics community of quantum mechanics is due to its accurate prediction of the physical behaviour of
systems, including systems where Newtonian mechanics fails.
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT:
There are some phenomena such as interference, diffraction and polarization which can be explained by
considering light as wave only.
On the other hand phenomenon such as photoelectric effect and Compton Effect can be explained by
considering light as a particle only.
When we visualize light as a wave, we need to forget its particle aspect completely and vice versa. This
type of behavior of light as a wave as well as particle is known as dual nature of light.
Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect: When a photon of energy hυ is incident on the
surface of the metal, a part of energy Φ is used in liberating the electron from the metal.
This energy is known as the work function of the metal. The rest of energy is given to
the electron so that is acquires kinetic energy ½ mv2. Thus a photon of energy hυ is
completely absorbed by the emitter.
Energy of photon = Energy needed to liberate the electron + Maximum K.E of the liberated electron
hυ = Φ + KEmax
hυ = Φ + ½ mv2max
The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. This equation can explain all the features
of the photoelectric effect.
Compton Effect
When a beam of high frequency radiation (x-ray or gamma-
ray) is scattered by the loosely bound electrons present in the
scatterer, there are also radiations of longer wavelength along
with original wavelength in the scattered radiation. This
phenomenon is known as Compton Effect.
When a photon of energy hν collides with the electron, some
of the energy is given to this electron. Due to this energy, the
electron gains kinetic energy and photon loses energy. Hence scattered photon will have lower energy hν ’
that is longer wavelength than the incident one.
(λ’ – λ) = h/mc [1-cosΦ] where h/mc = λC = Compton wavelength = 0.02424Å
Page 1 of 93
,De Broglie hypothesis:
Louis De Broglie a French Physicist put forward his bold ideas like this
“Since nature loves symmetry, if the radiation behaves as a particle under certain circumstances and
waves under other circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behave as
particles also exhibit properties attributable to waves under appropriate circumstance and those types of
waves are termed as matter waves.
All matter can exhibit wave-like behavior. For example, a beam of electrons can be diffracted just like a
beam of light or a water wave. The concept that matter behaves like a wave was proposed by Louis de
Broglie in 1924. It is also referred to as the de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves. On the other hand de
Broglie hypothesis is the combination of wave nature and particle nature.
If ‘ E ’ is the energy of a photon of radiation and the same energy can be written for a wave as follows
E = mc2 ---(1) (particle nature) and E = hν = hc/λ ---(2) (wave nature)
Comparing eqns (1) & (2) we get
mc2 = hc/λ or λ = h/mc = h/p
λ = h/p ; where λ = De Broglie wavelength
Particles of the matter also exhibit wavelike properties and those waves are known as matter waves.
Expression for de Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron
De Broglie wavelength for a matter wave is given by
λ = h/p ; where λ = De Broglie wavelength -------------(1)
From eqn. (1) we find that, if the particles like electrons are accelerated to various velocities, we can
produce waves of various wavelengths. Thus higher the electron velocity, smaller will be the de-Broglie
wavelength. If velocity v is given to an electron by accelerating it through a potential difference V, then
the work done on the electron is eV. This work done is converted to kinetic energy of electron. Hence, we
can write
½ mv2 = eV
mv = (2meV)1/2 -------------(2)
But eqn.(1) can be written as
λ = h/mv -------------------(3)
Substituting eqn.(2) in eqn.(3) we get
λ = h/(2meV)1/2
Page 2 of 93
,PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES:
1. The wavelength of a matter wave is inversely related to its particles momentum
2. Matter wave can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and undergo interference
3. The position and momentum of the material particles cannot be determined accurately and
simultaneously.
4. The amplitude of the matter waves at a particular region and time depends on the probability of
finding the particle at the same region and time.
Wave packet:
Two or more waves of slightly different wavelengths alternately interfere and reinforce so that an infinite
succession of groups of waves or wave packets are produced.
The velocity of the individual wave in a wave packet is called phase velocity of the wave and is
represented by Vp.
+
=
+
Vg
Vp
Phase, Group and particle velocities:
According to de Broglie each particle of matter (like electron, proton, neutron etc) is associated with a de
Broglie wave; this de Broglie wave may be regarded as a wave packet, consisting of a group of waves. A
number of frequencies mixed so that the resultant wave has a beginning and an end forms the group. Each
of the component waves propagates with a definite velocity called wave velocity or phase velocity.
Expression for Phase velocity:
A wave can be represented by
Y= A sin (ωt – kx) ---------- (1)
Where k = ω/v = wave number (rad/m) ; ω = Angular frequency (rad/s)
When a particle moves around a circle ν times/s, sweeps out 2πν rad/s
In eqn.(1) the term (ωt – kx) gives the phase of the oscillating mass
(ωt – kx) = constant for a periodic wave
d (ωt – kx) /dt = 0 or ω – k(dx/dt) = 0 or dx/dt =ω/k
Page 3 of 93
, vp = ω/k
When a wave packet or group consists of a number of component waves each traveling with slightly
different velocity, the wave packet (group) travels with a velocity different from the velocities of
component waves of the group; this velocity is called Group velocity.
Expression for Group velocity:
A wave group can be mathematically represented by the superposition of individual waves of different
wavelengths. The interference between these individual waves results in the variation of amplitude that
defines the shape of the group. If all the waves that constitute a group travel with the same velocity, the
group will also travel with the same velocity.
If however the wave velocity is dependent on the wavelength the group, velocity will be different from
the velocity of the individual waves.
The simplest wave group is one in which two continuous waves are superimposed. Let the two waves be
represented by
y1 = a cos (ω1t – k1x) and y2 = a cos (ω2t – k2x)
The resultant
y = y1 + y2 = a cos (ω1t – k1x) + a cos (ω2t – k2x)
- k - k 2 k1 k 2
y 2a cos 1 2 t - 1 2 x cos 1 t - x
2 2 2 2
1 2 k k2
Let and 1 k
2 2
- k - k
y 2a cos 1 2 t - 1 2 x cos( t - kx)
2 2
This equation represents a wave of angular frequency ω and wave number k whose amplitude is
modulated by a wave of angular frequency (ω1 – ω2)/2 and wave number (k1 – k2)/2 and has a maximum
value of 2a. The effect of this modulation is to produce a succession of wave groups as shown below:
The velocity with which this envelope moves, i.e., the velocity of the maximum amplitude of the group is
2
given by vg 1
k1 k2 k
If a group contains a number of frequency components in an infinitely small frequency interval (for Δk
→0), then the above expression may be written as
Page 4 of 93
