NR 565 EXAM PREP LATEST ADVANCED PHARMACOLOGY FUNDAMENTALS

NR 565 EXAM PREP LATEST

ADVANCED
PHARMACOLOGY
FUNDAMENTALS

ANSWERED


2025/2026

, 1. What are the four main pharmacokinetic processes that determine the fate of a drug inthe body? Explain how eachprocess affects the
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drug concentration and action.
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- The four main pharmacokinetic processes are absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Absorption is the process of
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transferring the drug from the site of administration to the systemic circulation. Distributionis the process of delivering the drug to the tissues
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and organs. Metabolism is the process of transforming the drug into more polar and less active metabolites. Excretion is the process of
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eliminating the drug and its metabolites from the body. Each process affects the drug concentration and action by influencing the onset,
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duration, intensity, and variability of the pharmacological effects.
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2. What are the factors that affect drug absorption? Give an example of each factor and explain howit influences the rate and extent of
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absorption.
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- The factors that affect drug absorption are physicochemical properties of the drug, formulation and route of administration,
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physiologicalfactors, and pathological factors. For example, a drug with high lipid solubility, low molecular weight, and non-ionized form
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can cross biological membranes more easily and have faster and higher absorption. A drug given orally may have lower and slower
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absorption than a drug given intravenously due to the first-pass effect in the liver. A drug may have altered absorption in patients with
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gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhea, vomiting, or malabsorption syndrome.
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3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of oralroute of administration? Name two types of oralformulations and explain how they
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differ in terms of absorption and bioavailability.
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- The advantages of oral route of administration are convenience, safety, low cost, and suitability for sustained-release formulations. The
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disadvantages are variability, slow onset, first-pass effect, gastric irritation, food-drug interactions, and patient compliance. Two types of
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oral formulations are tablets and capsules. Tablets are solid dosage forms that contain one or more active ingredients compressed or
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molded into a shape. Capsules are gelatinshells that enclose a powder, liquid, or granule. Tablets may have different coatings or
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disintegrants that affect their dissolution and absorption. Capsules may have different sizes or materials that affect their dissolution and
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absorption. Generally, capsules have faster and higher absorption and bioavailability than tablets.
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4. What is the difference between plasma protein binding and tissue binding of drugs? How do they affect drug distributionand
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elimination?
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- Plasma proteinbinding is the reversible attachment of drugs to plasma proteins, suchas albumin or globulins. Tissue binding is the
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reversible or irreversible attachment of drugs to tissues or organs, such as fat, bone, or brain. Plasma protein binding affects drug
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distribution by limiting the free fractionof drug that can diffuse across capillary walls and reachthe target site. Plasma protein binding also
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affects drug elimination by prolonging the half-life and reducing the clearance of drugs. Tissue binding affects drug distributionby creating a
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reservoir or depot for drugs that can maintain a prolonged effect or cause toxicity. Tissue binding also affects drug elimination by delaying
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the elimination of drugs from the body.
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5. What is biotransformation? What are the two main phases of biotransformation? Give anexample of each phase and explain howit
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changes the chemical structure and activity of drugs.
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- Biotransformationis the process of converting drugs into more polar and less active metabolites that canbe excreted by the kidneys. The k
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two main phases of biotransformationare phase I and phase II reactions. Phase I reactions are oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis reactions
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that introduce or expose a functional group on the drug molecule. Phase II reactions are conjugation reactions that attach a polar molecule
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to the functionalgroup on the drug molecule. For example, acetaminophen undergoes phase I oxidationby cytochrome P450 enzymes to
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form N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), whichis a toxic metabolite that can cause liver damage. NAPQI then undergoes phase II
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conjugation with glutathione to form a nontoxic metabolite that can be excreted in urine.
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6. What are the factors that affect drug metabolism? Give an example of eachfactor and explain how it influences the rate and extent of
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metabolism.
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