Atrophy - Correct Answers E. Cells decrease in size
P. Still functional; imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation. Essentially there is an increase
in the catabolism of intracellular organelles, reducing structural components of cell
Physiologic: thymus gland in early childhood
Pathological: disuse (muscle atrophy d/ decrease workload, pressure, use, blood supply, nutrition,
hormonal stimulation, or nervous stimulation)
Hyperplasia - Correct Answers E: cells increase in number, mitosis (cell division) must occur, size of cell
does not change
Phys: increased rate of division, increase in tissue mass after damage or partial resection; may be
compensatory, hormonal, or pathologic
Patho: abnormal proliferation of normal cells usually caused by increased hormonal stimulation
(endometrial). increase of production of local growth factors
Ex: removal of part of the liver lead to hyperplasia of hepatocytes. uterine or mammary gland
enlargement during pregnancy
Dysplasia - Correct Answers E. Not true adaptation; Cells abnormal change in size, shape, organization
(classified as mild, moderate, severe)
P. caused by cell injury/irritation, characterized by disordered cell growth. aka atypical hyperplasia or
pre-cancer, a disorderly proliferation
Physiologic: N/A
Pathologic: squamous dysplasia of cervix from HPV shows up on pap smear, breast cancer development;
pap smears often show dysplastic cells of the cervix that must undergo laser/surgical tx
Metaplasia - Correct Answers E: reversible change, one type of cell changes to another type for survival
P: reversible; results from exposure of the cells to chronic stressors, injury, or irritation; Cancer can arise
from this area, stimulus induces a reprogramming of stem cells under the influence of cytokines and
growth factors
Ex: Patho: Columnar cells change to squamous cells in lungs of smoker or normal ciliated epithelial cells
of the bronchial linings are replaced by stratified squamous epithelial cells.; Phys: Barrett Esophagus-
,normal squamous cells change to columnar epithelial cells in response to reflux, aka intestinal
metaplasia
Hypoxia injury - Correct Answers E. inadequate oxygenation of tissues
P. decrease in mitochondrial function, decreased production of ATP increases anaerobic metabolism.
eventual cell death.
C.M. hypoxia, cyanosis, cognitive impairment, lethargy
Free radical and ROS - Correct Answers E. normal byproduct of ATP production, will overwhelm the
mitochondria- exhaust intracellular antioxidants
P. lipid peroxidation, damage proteins, fragment DNA
C.M. development in Alzheimer's, heart disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Ethanol - Correct Answers E. mood altering drug, long term effects on liver and nutritional status
P. metabolized by liver, generates free radicals
C.M. CNS depression, nutrient deficiencies-Mag, Vit B6, thiamine, PO4, inflammation and fatty
infiltration of liver, hepatomegaly, leads to liver failure irreversible
Oncosis - Correct Answers Na and H2O enter cell and cause swelling. Organ increases in weight,
becomes distended and pale. Associated with high fever, hypocalcemia, certain infections
Fatty Infiltration - Correct Answers intracellular accumulation of lipids in the liver
liver fails to metabolize lipids. usually from ETOH or high fat diet. can lead to cirrhosis
dystrophic calcification - Correct Answers accumulation of Ca in dead or dying tissues
calcium salt clump and harden- interfere with cellular structure and function
r/t pulmonary TB, atherosclerosis, injured heart valves, chronic pancreatitis
metastatic calcification - Correct Answers accumulation of Ca in normal tissue
result of hypercalcemia r/t hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, toxic levels of Vit D. Can also r/t
hyperphosphatemia in renal failure
,urate accumulation - Correct Answers sodium urate crystals are deposited in tissues- group of disorders
collectively called gout- acute arthritis, chronic gouty arthritis, tophus, nephritis
Coagulative Necrosis - Correct Answers kidneys, heart, adrenals- secondary to hypoxia
Liquefactive Necrosis - Correct Answers nerve cells- brain- accumulation of pus
Caseous Necrosis - Correct Answers lung disease- usually TB- tissue looks like clumped cheese
Fat Necrosis - Correct Answers breast, pancreas, abdominal structures- creates soaps
Gangrenous Necrosis - Correct Answers Dry- dark shriveled skin
Wet- internal organs- can lead to death
Gas- from clostridium- antitoxins and hyperbaric therapy
Gout - Correct Answers E. disturbances in serum urate levels. uncommon for < 30 years old.
P. uric acid is deposited in the tissues of kidney, heart, earlobes, and joints.
C.M. inflammation, painful joints. result of diuretic use or diet high in cream sauces, red wine, or red
meat
Rhabdomyolysis - Correct Answers E. cell hypoxia caused by severe muscle trauma, hyperthermia, crush
injuries, or severe dehydration
P. hypoxia to cell causes failure of the Na-K pump, causing accumulation of intracellular sodium, oncosis,
and eventual cell death. Cell death releases enzymes such as CK, uric acid, LDH, AST, etc.
C.M. Causes: trauma, hyperthermia, crush injuries, severe dehydration; s/s: CK is 5x upper normal limit,
muscle pain, weakness, dark, reddish-brown urine, hypercalcemia, renal failure
Alpha Fetoprotein Origin - Correct Answers Liver and germ cell tumors
, Carcinoembryonic Antigen - Correct Answers GI, pancreas, lung, breast tumors
Prostate Specific Antigen - Correct Answers prostate tumors
Carcino- - Correct Answers from epithelial tissue- renal cell carcinoma
Sarco- - Correct Answers from connective tissue- chondrosarcoma
Carcinoma in situ - Correct Answers preinvasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or squamous
cells- cervix
Lung ca metastasis - Correct Answers Multiple organs including brain
Colorectal ca metastasis - Correct Answers Liver, lungs
Testicular ca metastasis - Correct Answers Liver, lungs, brain
Prostate ca metastasis - Correct Answers Bones (especially lumbar spine), liver
Head and neck ca metastasis - Correct Answers Liver, bones, lymphatics
Ovarian ca metastasis - Correct Answers Peritoneal surfaces, diaphragm, omentum, liver
Sarcoma metastasis - Correct Answers Lungs
Melanoma metastasis - Correct Answers In transit lymphatics, lung, liver, brain, GI tract
Mechanisms of ca metastasis - Correct Answers Local invasion, followed by invasion of surrounding
tissues. Cells then may invade blood and lymphatic vessels. They must survive in circulation, then enter
and survive in a new location. Then the cells can multiply and form a new tumor.
P. Still functional; imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation. Essentially there is an increase
in the catabolism of intracellular organelles, reducing structural components of cell
Physiologic: thymus gland in early childhood
Pathological: disuse (muscle atrophy d/ decrease workload, pressure, use, blood supply, nutrition,
hormonal stimulation, or nervous stimulation)
Hyperplasia - Correct Answers E: cells increase in number, mitosis (cell division) must occur, size of cell
does not change
Phys: increased rate of division, increase in tissue mass after damage or partial resection; may be
compensatory, hormonal, or pathologic
Patho: abnormal proliferation of normal cells usually caused by increased hormonal stimulation
(endometrial). increase of production of local growth factors
Ex: removal of part of the liver lead to hyperplasia of hepatocytes. uterine or mammary gland
enlargement during pregnancy
Dysplasia - Correct Answers E. Not true adaptation; Cells abnormal change in size, shape, organization
(classified as mild, moderate, severe)
P. caused by cell injury/irritation, characterized by disordered cell growth. aka atypical hyperplasia or
pre-cancer, a disorderly proliferation
Physiologic: N/A
Pathologic: squamous dysplasia of cervix from HPV shows up on pap smear, breast cancer development;
pap smears often show dysplastic cells of the cervix that must undergo laser/surgical tx
Metaplasia - Correct Answers E: reversible change, one type of cell changes to another type for survival
P: reversible; results from exposure of the cells to chronic stressors, injury, or irritation; Cancer can arise
from this area, stimulus induces a reprogramming of stem cells under the influence of cytokines and
growth factors
Ex: Patho: Columnar cells change to squamous cells in lungs of smoker or normal ciliated epithelial cells
of the bronchial linings are replaced by stratified squamous epithelial cells.; Phys: Barrett Esophagus-
,normal squamous cells change to columnar epithelial cells in response to reflux, aka intestinal
metaplasia
Hypoxia injury - Correct Answers E. inadequate oxygenation of tissues
P. decrease in mitochondrial function, decreased production of ATP increases anaerobic metabolism.
eventual cell death.
C.M. hypoxia, cyanosis, cognitive impairment, lethargy
Free radical and ROS - Correct Answers E. normal byproduct of ATP production, will overwhelm the
mitochondria- exhaust intracellular antioxidants
P. lipid peroxidation, damage proteins, fragment DNA
C.M. development in Alzheimer's, heart disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Ethanol - Correct Answers E. mood altering drug, long term effects on liver and nutritional status
P. metabolized by liver, generates free radicals
C.M. CNS depression, nutrient deficiencies-Mag, Vit B6, thiamine, PO4, inflammation and fatty
infiltration of liver, hepatomegaly, leads to liver failure irreversible
Oncosis - Correct Answers Na and H2O enter cell and cause swelling. Organ increases in weight,
becomes distended and pale. Associated with high fever, hypocalcemia, certain infections
Fatty Infiltration - Correct Answers intracellular accumulation of lipids in the liver
liver fails to metabolize lipids. usually from ETOH or high fat diet. can lead to cirrhosis
dystrophic calcification - Correct Answers accumulation of Ca in dead or dying tissues
calcium salt clump and harden- interfere with cellular structure and function
r/t pulmonary TB, atherosclerosis, injured heart valves, chronic pancreatitis
metastatic calcification - Correct Answers accumulation of Ca in normal tissue
result of hypercalcemia r/t hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, toxic levels of Vit D. Can also r/t
hyperphosphatemia in renal failure
,urate accumulation - Correct Answers sodium urate crystals are deposited in tissues- group of disorders
collectively called gout- acute arthritis, chronic gouty arthritis, tophus, nephritis
Coagulative Necrosis - Correct Answers kidneys, heart, adrenals- secondary to hypoxia
Liquefactive Necrosis - Correct Answers nerve cells- brain- accumulation of pus
Caseous Necrosis - Correct Answers lung disease- usually TB- tissue looks like clumped cheese
Fat Necrosis - Correct Answers breast, pancreas, abdominal structures- creates soaps
Gangrenous Necrosis - Correct Answers Dry- dark shriveled skin
Wet- internal organs- can lead to death
Gas- from clostridium- antitoxins and hyperbaric therapy
Gout - Correct Answers E. disturbances in serum urate levels. uncommon for < 30 years old.
P. uric acid is deposited in the tissues of kidney, heart, earlobes, and joints.
C.M. inflammation, painful joints. result of diuretic use or diet high in cream sauces, red wine, or red
meat
Rhabdomyolysis - Correct Answers E. cell hypoxia caused by severe muscle trauma, hyperthermia, crush
injuries, or severe dehydration
P. hypoxia to cell causes failure of the Na-K pump, causing accumulation of intracellular sodium, oncosis,
and eventual cell death. Cell death releases enzymes such as CK, uric acid, LDH, AST, etc.
C.M. Causes: trauma, hyperthermia, crush injuries, severe dehydration; s/s: CK is 5x upper normal limit,
muscle pain, weakness, dark, reddish-brown urine, hypercalcemia, renal failure
Alpha Fetoprotein Origin - Correct Answers Liver and germ cell tumors
, Carcinoembryonic Antigen - Correct Answers GI, pancreas, lung, breast tumors
Prostate Specific Antigen - Correct Answers prostate tumors
Carcino- - Correct Answers from epithelial tissue- renal cell carcinoma
Sarco- - Correct Answers from connective tissue- chondrosarcoma
Carcinoma in situ - Correct Answers preinvasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or squamous
cells- cervix
Lung ca metastasis - Correct Answers Multiple organs including brain
Colorectal ca metastasis - Correct Answers Liver, lungs
Testicular ca metastasis - Correct Answers Liver, lungs, brain
Prostate ca metastasis - Correct Answers Bones (especially lumbar spine), liver
Head and neck ca metastasis - Correct Answers Liver, bones, lymphatics
Ovarian ca metastasis - Correct Answers Peritoneal surfaces, diaphragm, omentum, liver
Sarcoma metastasis - Correct Answers Lungs
Melanoma metastasis - Correct Answers In transit lymphatics, lung, liver, brain, GI tract
Mechanisms of ca metastasis - Correct Answers Local invasion, followed by invasion of surrounding
tissues. Cells then may invade blood and lymphatic vessels. They must survive in circulation, then enter
and survive in a new location. Then the cells can multiply and form a new tumor.
