Pathophysiology Exam 1
Pathophysiology = the study of disease at the cellular level
Chapter 1 The Cell in Health and Illness
1. Mitochondria and Energy Production
a. Aerobic metabolism
i. Glucose to pyruvate, which enters Krebs cycle
ii. Net yield: 34 ATP
b. Anaerobic metabolism
i. Oxygen not available (hypoxia)
ii. Glucose to pyruvate to lactic acid (can alter pH)
iii. Net yield: 2 ATP
c.
Chapter 2 - Cell Injury, Adaptations, and Maladaptive Changes
1. Disease Etiology
a. Etiology
i. Original cause of cell alteration or disease
b. Etiologic agents
i. Causes of the cell alteration or disease
ii. Examples: infection, trauma
c. Characteristic changes with specific etiologic agents
i. Examples:
1. Cold temperature causes frostbite
2. Streptococcal bacteria causes sore throat
d. In response to an etiologic agent, the cell may…
i. Develop adaptive, compensatory changes
, ii. Develop maladaptive changes
2. Basic Cellular Adaptations
a. Atrophy
i. Cells revert to smaller size due to reduction in metabolic demand
ii. Example:
1. paralysis causing shrinkage of skeletal muscle
2. Broken arm, atrophy occurs bc disuse
b. Hypertrophy
i. Increase in individual cell mass or size
ii. Types of hypertrophy
1. Physiological
a. Cell enlargement with adequate supporting tissues
b. Example: enlargement of cardiac cells with exercise
training
2. Pathological
a. Increase in cell size, without increase in support structures
b. Example: enlargement of heart tissue due to hypertension
c. Hypertrophy and Atrophy Examples
i.
ii.
1
, iii.
d. Hyperplasia
i. Increase in number of cells
ii. Only in cells capable of mitosis
iii. Can result from hormonal stimulation
1. Example: estrogen stimulates growth of breast cells in pregnancy
iv. May evolve into maladaptive compensation
1. Cell number increases too much
2. Example: keloid formation
a.
e. Metaplasia
i. Replacement of one cell type with another
ii. Genetic reprogramming to ensure cell survival
iii. Example: GERD
1. Lower esophageal cells transform from squamous epithelium to
columnar stomach-like cells
2
, iv.
f. Dysplasia
i. Dys = BAD
ii. Deranged cellular growth
iii. Often a result of chronic inflammation or a precancerous condition
iv. Cells vary in size, shape, and organization compared with normal
v. Example: cervical dysplasia detected by Papanicolaou (Pap) test (they are
looking for dysplastic cells bc that could suggest cancer)
vi.
vii.
g. Neoplasia
i. <New growth=
ii. Disorganized, uncoordinated, uncontrolled cell growth, <cancerous=
iii. Neoplasm: often interchanged with the term <tumor=
3
Pathophysiology = the study of disease at the cellular level
Chapter 1 The Cell in Health and Illness
1. Mitochondria and Energy Production
a. Aerobic metabolism
i. Glucose to pyruvate, which enters Krebs cycle
ii. Net yield: 34 ATP
b. Anaerobic metabolism
i. Oxygen not available (hypoxia)
ii. Glucose to pyruvate to lactic acid (can alter pH)
iii. Net yield: 2 ATP
c.
Chapter 2 - Cell Injury, Adaptations, and Maladaptive Changes
1. Disease Etiology
a. Etiology
i. Original cause of cell alteration or disease
b. Etiologic agents
i. Causes of the cell alteration or disease
ii. Examples: infection, trauma
c. Characteristic changes with specific etiologic agents
i. Examples:
1. Cold temperature causes frostbite
2. Streptococcal bacteria causes sore throat
d. In response to an etiologic agent, the cell may…
i. Develop adaptive, compensatory changes
, ii. Develop maladaptive changes
2. Basic Cellular Adaptations
a. Atrophy
i. Cells revert to smaller size due to reduction in metabolic demand
ii. Example:
1. paralysis causing shrinkage of skeletal muscle
2. Broken arm, atrophy occurs bc disuse
b. Hypertrophy
i. Increase in individual cell mass or size
ii. Types of hypertrophy
1. Physiological
a. Cell enlargement with adequate supporting tissues
b. Example: enlargement of cardiac cells with exercise
training
2. Pathological
a. Increase in cell size, without increase in support structures
b. Example: enlargement of heart tissue due to hypertension
c. Hypertrophy and Atrophy Examples
i.
ii.
1
, iii.
d. Hyperplasia
i. Increase in number of cells
ii. Only in cells capable of mitosis
iii. Can result from hormonal stimulation
1. Example: estrogen stimulates growth of breast cells in pregnancy
iv. May evolve into maladaptive compensation
1. Cell number increases too much
2. Example: keloid formation
a.
e. Metaplasia
i. Replacement of one cell type with another
ii. Genetic reprogramming to ensure cell survival
iii. Example: GERD
1. Lower esophageal cells transform from squamous epithelium to
columnar stomach-like cells
2
, iv.
f. Dysplasia
i. Dys = BAD
ii. Deranged cellular growth
iii. Often a result of chronic inflammation or a precancerous condition
iv. Cells vary in size, shape, and organization compared with normal
v. Example: cervical dysplasia detected by Papanicolaou (Pap) test (they are
looking for dysplastic cells bc that could suggest cancer)
vi.
vii.
g. Neoplasia
i. <New growth=
ii. Disorganized, uncoordinated, uncontrolled cell growth, <cancerous=
iii. Neoplasm: often interchanged with the term <tumor=
3
