NURS 602 Quiz (100% Correct) Questions and Answers 2025 Updated Version.

NURS 602 Quiz (100% Correct) Questions and Answers 2025 Updated Version. Research problem An area of concern in which there is a gap in the knowledge needed for nursing practice. Significance of a research problem Indicates the importance of the problem to nursing and health care and to the health of individuals, families, and communities. Background for a problem Briefly identifies what we know about the problem area. Problem statement Identifies the specific gap in the knowledge needed for practice. Research purpose Concise, clear statement of the specific goal or aim of the study. The purpose is generated from the problem. Purpose of descriptive research 1. Identify and describe concepts or variables 2. Identify possible relationships among variables 3. Delineate differences between or among existing groups Purpose of correlational research Examines the type and strength of relationship among variables (can be positive or negative) Purpose of quasi-experimental research Conducted to determine the effect of a treatment or independent variable on designated dependent or outcome variables What type of correlation is this? "An increase in the number of pack-years decreases a person's lifespan" Negative correlation (-1) What type of correlation is this? "An increase in stress levels leads to an increase in blood pressure readings" Positive correlation (+1) Purpose of experimental research Determines the effect of one or more independent variables on one or more dependent variables Conducted in highly controlled settings What type of quantitative research is this? "The purpose of this observational study was to assess the frequency and type of hand hygiene opportunities initiated by clinical and non-clinical caregivers..." Descriptive research What type of quantitative research is this? "Biological correlates and predictors of insulin resistance among early adolescents..." Correlational research What type of quantitative research is this? "The purpose of this study was to determine the 'effectiveness of a nurse-case-managed intervention compared with that of two standard programs on completion of the combine hepatitis A virus and HBV vaccine series among homeless adults and to assess sociodemographic factors and risk behaviors related to the vaccine completion.'" Quasi-experimental research What type of quantitative research is this? "The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on pain-like behavior and NT-3 in an animal model of widespread pain." Experimental research Phenomenological research Conducted to promote a deeper understanding of complex human experiences as they have been lived by the study participants Study of experiences or phenomena (experiences that comprise the lives of humans) What type of qualitative research is this? "Describe the lived experience of grieving among widows whose husbands died in combat in Iraq since 2007." Phenomenological research Grounded theory research Identifies the area of concern and the purpose indicates the focus of the theory to be developed to account for a pattern of behavior of those involved in the study. Used most frequently to study areas in which little previous research has been conducted and to gain a new viewpoint in familiar areas of research. Investigates interactions among individuals from the perspectives of those involved. What type of qualitative research is this? "Describe the behavioral and communication patterns and social interactions that maintain functional status of frail elders" Grounded theory research Ethnographic research The problem and purpose identify the culture and specific attributes of the culture that are to be examined, described, analyzed, and interpreted to reveal the social actions, beliefs, values and norms of the culture. A written report of the culture's beliefs, habits, and lifestyle aims to improve health promotion, quality of care, and health intervention between the culture and a possible more standardized Western nursing and medicine practice. What type of qualitative research is this? "Compare beliefs related to health and women's roles among women living with HIV infection in northwest New York State to those of women living in New York City." Ethnographic research Exploratory-descriptive research A study being conducted by multiple researchers to describe unique issues, health problems, or situations that lack clear description or definition. Studies conducted for a specific purpose, of describing a specific area of practice that has not been widely investigated. Developed to provide information and insight into clinical or practice problems, looking for a practical solution. What type of qualitative research is this? "Explore the needs of patients undergoing treatment for Hepatitis C infection for purposes of starting a new program" Exploratory-descriptive research Historical research The focus of this research is on a specific individual, characteristic of society, event, or situation at a clearly defined past point in time What type of qualitative research is this? "Describe the contributions of Mary Eliza Mahoney, first black nurse in the United States, to the status of black nurses in the profession from 1930 through 1950" Historical research Outcomes research Focuses on examining the results of care and determining the changes in health status for the patient What makes a nursing research problem significant? 1. Influences nursing practice 2. Builds on previous research 3. Promotes theory testing or development 4. Addresses current concerns or priorities in nursing Feasibility of a study Determined by examining the researchers' expertise; money commitment; availability of subjects, facilities, and equipment; and the study's ethical considerations Research objective or aim A clear, concise, declarative statement expressed in the present tense. Focuses on one or two variables and indicates whether they are to be identified or described. Objectives directing qualitative studies are commonly broader in focus and include concepts that are more abstract than those of quantitative studies. Research question A clear, concise interrogative statement that is worded in the present tense, includes one or more variables, and is expressed to guide the implementation of studies. Hypothesis A formal statement of the expected relationship(s) between two or more variables in a specified population. Associative hypothesis Type of hypothesis that proposes relationships among variables that occur or exist together in the real world, so that when one variable changes, the other changes, but not that one causes the other to change. Causal hypothesis Proposes a cause-and-effect interaction, there is a defined independent and dependent variable(s) Simple hypothesis Type of hypothesis that states the relationship between two variables (causal or associative) Complex hypothesis Type of hypothesis that states the relationship among three or more variables Nondirectional hypothesis Type of hypothesis that states there is a relationship but not the nature of the relationship. Directional hypothesis Type of hypothesis that states the positive or negative interaction between variables Research hypothesis Type of hypothesis that states that a relationship exists between two or more variables. It is the alternative hypothesis to the null or statistical hypothesis. Statistical hypothesis Also known as the null hypothesis. This type of hypothesis simply states the opposite of the research hypothesis. It is used for statistical analysis. Variables Qualities, properties, or characteristics of persons, things, or situations that change or vary Independent variable An intervention that is manipulated or varied by the researcher to create an effect on the dependent variable Dependent variable The outcome that the researcher wants to predict or explain, presumed to be caused by an independent variable Demographic variables Variables that describe the participants characteristics such as age, ethnicity, education, and employment Research variables The qualities, properties, or characteristics identified in the research purpose and objectives or questions that are observed or measured in a study. Extraneous variables Variables that exist in all studies and are either controlled or recognized by the researcher or unrecognized and uncontrolled in the study, possible affecting study outcomes. Environmental variables Variables that exist in the setting of the study, such as weather, family, and healthcare system restraints. Research concepts Include the ideas, experiences, situations, or events that are investigated in qualitative research Describe the characteristics of this hypothesis: "Relaxation therapy is more effective than standard care in decreasing pain perception and use of pain medications in adults with chronic arthritic pain." Causal Complex Directional Describe the characteristics of this hypothesis: "Heparinized saline is no more effective than normal saline in maintaining the patency and comfort of an intermittent IV access lock." Simple Null Describe the characteristics of this hypothesis: "Poor health status is related to decreasing self-care abilities in institutionalized elderly." Associative Complex Directional In the following hypothesis, what is/are the independent variable(s)? "Relaxation therapy is more effective than standard care in decreasing pain perception and use of pain medications in adults with chronic arthritic pain." Relaxation therapy Standard care Conceptual definition of a variable The theoretical meaning of a variable; often derived from a theorist's definition of a related concept Operational definition of a variable Derived from a set of procedures or progressive acts that a researcher performs to receive sensory impressions that indicate the existence or degree of existence of a variable Qualitative Research Systematic approach use to describe experiences and situations from the perspective of the person in the situation. Analyzing the words of the participants, finding meaning in the words, and provides a description of the experience that promotes deeper understanding of the experience Rigor in Qualitative Research Strength of a qualitative study Extent to which the identified meanings represent the perspectives of the participants accurately Structured interview Type of qualitative data collection method where there is a fixed set of questions, but no fixed responses. Unstructured interview AKA open-ended interviews Type of qualitative data collection method Focus groups Type of qualitative data collection method that uses a group dynamic to diffuse tension or stress that a one-on-one interview may create. Observation Type of qualitative data collection method where the researcher looks for participants' interaction with the environment and vice versa. Field notes are taken during or shortly after observations. Text Type of qualitative data collection method where researchers examine texts written prior to the study such as letters, diaries, newspaper accounts, and written descriptions of events. Coding The process of reading the data, breaking text down into subparts, and giving a label to that part of the text. These labels provide a way for the researcher to begin to identify patterns in the data. When did the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare publish the first set of regulations for the protection of human research subjects, including institutional review? 1973 What are the three ethical principles relevant to human research? Beneficence Justice Respect for persons Principle of respect for persons An ethical principle from the Belmont Report (1978) stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents, with the right to self-determination and the freedom to participate or not participate in research. Principle of beneficence An ethical principle from the Belmont Report (1978) stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote their well-being. To do good and above all, do no harm. Principle of justice An ethical principle from the Belmont Report (1978) calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it. Human subjects should be treated fairly in terms of the benefits and the risks of research. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Implemented in 2003 as a regulation to control privacy of patient information in a digital world. Protects each individual's personal health information (PHI) whether they are being care for in a private, public, or government care setting. Code of Federal Regulations Protection of Human Subjects Created in 2009 which includes the most current update of regulations on protections of human subjects in research. Three components: 1. Protection of human subjects in research with additional protection for pregnant women, human fetuses, neonates, children, and prisoners 2. Documentation of informed consent 3. Implementation of the Institutional Review Board process Persons with diminished autonomy Documented mental diminished autonomy Neonates Children Pregnant women/fetuses Terminally ill participants Participants confined to institutions At what age is it required for study participants who are children to obtain assent and consent from their parents? 7 years old Privacy The freedom participants have to determine the time, extent, and general circumstances under which their private information will be shared with or withheld from others. When can a participant's information be used without permission? When their protected health information (PHI) is de-identified De-identification includes removing names, medical record numbers, account numbers, ZIP codes, and biometric identifiers Anonymity Participants have the right to assume all the information or data collected involving their physiologic, psychologic, and sociologic state will be kept anonymous. Confidentiality Participants have the right to assume the researchers will not share or leak any information obtained that is personal or identifying of the participant. Levels of harm No anticipated effects Temporary discomfort Unusual levels of temporary discomfort Risk of permanent damage Certainty of permanent damage Four elements of informed consent 1) Disclosure of essential study information to the study participant 2) Comprehension of this information by the participant 3) Competence of the participant to give consent 4) Voluntary consent of the participant to take part in the study Consent form A form provided to the participants at the beginning of a research study to obtain their consent for the study and to explain the study's purpose and risks, and the participants' rights as participants Essential Information for consent 1) Introduction of research activities 2) Statement of the research purpose 3) Selection of research subjects 4) Explanation of procedures 5) Description of risks and discomforts 6) Description of benefits 7) Disclosure of alternatives 8) Assurance of anonymity and confidentiality 9) Offering to answer questions 10) Voluntary participation 11) Option to withdraw 12) Consent to incomplete disclosure Breach of confidentiality Occurs when the researcher, by accident or direct action, allows an unauthorized person to gain access to the raw data of a study. Voluntary consent Prospective subject has decided to take part in a study of his or her own volition, without coercion or undue influence. Institutional Review Board (IRB) A committee that reviews research to ensure that the investigator is conducting the research ethically. Exempt from review Designation given to studies that have no apparent risks for the research subjects and thus are designated as exempt by an institutional review board. Determine the level of IRB review required: "Descriptive, longitudinal study of weight gain during menopause pulled from patient charts without information linking the data to specific women" Exempt from review because there are no patient identifiers Determine the level of IRB review required: "Comparison of student grades of two sections of a course in which students in one section had unlimited access to simulated clinical practice laboratory and students in the second section had unlimited access to computer-based clinical games." Expedited review Determine the level of IRB review required: "Random clinical trial comparing two medications for asthma for children ages 12 to 19 years of age" Complete review Expedited review A type of review by an institutional review board that can occur quickly; an IRB may conduct an expedited review if there is minimal risk to human subjects Complete review Type of institutional review process for studies with risks that are greater than minimal; the review of a study is extensive by an institutional review board Critical Appraisal Guidelines for Examining the Ethical Aspects of a Study 1) Examination of the benefit-risk ratio 2) IRB approval 3) Informed consent 4) Protection of subjects' human rights Benefit-risk ratio The benefits and risks associated with the sampling method, consent process, procedures, and potential outcomes of the study are assessed Sampling Involves selecting a group of people, events, objects, or other elements with which to conduct a study Sample The selected group of people (or elements) Population A particular group of individuals or elements who are the focus of the research Target population The entire set of individuals or elements that meet the sampling criteria. Sampling theory Developed to determine the most effective way to acquire a sample that accurately reflects the population under study Accessible population The portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable access. Elements The individual units of the population and sample. Subjects The people or elements that are studied in a quantitative research. Participants The people or elements that are studied in a qualitative research. Inclusion criteria Characteristics that the subject or element must possess to be part of the target population. Exclusion criteria Characteristics that can cause a person or element to be excluded from the target population. Homogenous sample Very narrow sampling criteria to make the sample as similar as possible to control for extraneous variables. Heterogenous sample A very extensive or open sampling criteria. Representativeness of a sample The sample, accessible population, and target population are all alike. Refusal rate Percentage of subjects who declined to participate R = (# refused/total # approached) x 100% Acceptance rate Percentage of subjects meeting sampling criteria consenting to participate in a study A = (# accepted/total # approached) x 100% Sample attrition Withdrawal or loss of subjects from a study that can be expressed as a number of subjects withdrawing or a percentage SA = (# withdrawing / sample size) x 100% Sample retention The number of subjects who remain in and complete a study SR = (# who completed / sample size) x 100% Simple random sampling A type of probability sampling where there is a random selection of persons from a sampling frame Sampling frame A list of every member in the population, using the sampling criteria to meet eligibility Sampling plan An outline of the strategies used to obtain sample subjects for a study, including probability (random) and/or non-probability (non-random) sampling Stratified random sampling A type of probability sampling that is used to achieve representativeness of certain critical variables, predetermined by the researcher Common stratification variables include: age, sex, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status Cluster sampling A type of probability sampling where a researcher develops a sampling frame with specific states, cities, institutions, or organizations he/she would like represented in the representative sample Systematic sampling A type of probability sampling where an ordered list for all the members of the population is available and the nth individual on the list is selected The starting point to start the count for the nth individual is selected at random Nonprobability sampling Not every person or element of a population has an opportunity to be selected for a study sample Convenience sampling Type of nonprobability sampling where subjects are included in a study because they are in the right place at the right time. This can easily create bias. Quota sampling Type of nonprobability sampling where the researcher identifies subgroups and their proportions in the target population, using this to obtain convenience sampling and ensuring a quota of each specified subgroup is properly represented in the target population Sample size Number of subjects participating in a study Power analysis Used to determine adequacy of the sample size in quantitative studies Power Ability of the study to detect differences or relationships that actually exist in the sample population Effect size The extent to which the null or statistical hypothesis is false Tells you the size of the difference between the groups or the strength of the relationship between two variables Purposeful/purposive sampling Type of sampling where the researcher consciously selects certain participants, elements, events, or incidents to include in the study. Network/snowball sampling Type of sampling where it takes advantage of social networks and the fact that friends tend to have characteristics in common. Locating participants who would be difficult or impossible to obtain in other ways or who have not been previously identified for the study. Theoretical sampling Type of sampling method used in qualitative research to develop a selected theory through the research process. Intraproject sampling Additional sampling done during data collection and analysis to promote the development of quality study findings Saturation When additional sampling provides no new information, only redundancy of previous collected data Verification Occurs when researchers are able to confirm relationships or theoretical methods Setting Site or location of a study Natural setting AKA Field setting Uncontrolled, real-life situation or environment. The researcher does not manipulate or change the environment for the study. Partially controlled setting An environment that is manipulated or modified in some way by the researcher. Highly controlled setting An artificially constructed environment developed for the sole purpose of conducting research. What are the challenges that can result from a narrow eligibility criteria? If the sample size is too narrow, researchers have difficulty obtaining an adequate sample size that is representative of the population. Why might a researcher narrowly define the eligibility or sampling criteria for a study? To make the sample homogeneous Measurement theory Developed by statisticians, mathematicians, and scholars to provide a set of guidelines for how health status, objects, events, or situations are measured. Allows for consistency in measurements throughout research from study to study. Direct measure Involves determining the value of a concrete factor such as height, weight, and BP. Indirect measure Involves capturing some elements of an abstract concept, usually accomplished by using multiple methods to create a better understanding. Nominal Level Level of measurement used when data can be organized into categories of a defined property but not able to be ranked in order. Lowest form of measurement. Examples: Gender, race, ethnicity, diagnosis Ordinal Level Level of measurement where data are assigned to categories that can be ranked. One category must be valued lower/higher than another. Example: Categories to rank intensity of pain: Mild (0-2), Moderate (3-6), Intense (7-9), Severe (10) Interval Level Level of measurement where interval scales have equal numerical distances between categories Example: Temperature 31-40, 41-50, 51-60 Ratio Level Highest form of measurement and meets all "rules" of measurement Mutually exclusive categories, exhaustive categories, ordered ranks, equal speed of intervals, and a continuum. Example: Weight, length, volume Measurement error The difference between the true measure (ideal perfect measure) and what is actually measured Random measurement error Difference between the measured value and the true value (without pattern - random) Can happen when data collection is not done exactly the same way every time. Example: Different BP cuff use Systematic measurement error Measurement error that is not random Example: A scale used for weight is 2 pounds over weight on each subject Reliability The consistency of a measurement method Should be able to reproduce the same data each time Reliability testing A measure of the amount of random error in the measurement technique Takes into account characteristics such as dependability, precision, stability, consistency, and reproducibility Cronbach's alpha coefficient The most commonly used measure of reliability for scales with multiple items A 0.8 is considered a strong coefficient and a 0.0 indicating no reliability Stability The consistency of repeated measures of the same attribute with use of the same scale or instrument Often referred to as test-retest reliability Equivalence The comparison of two versions of the same paper and pencil instrument or two observers measuring the same event Interrater reliability Comparison of two observers or two judges in a study Used to assess within an observational study or observational variable Alternate forms of reliability Comparison of two instruments, determining which is better Homogeneity Reliability testing used primarily with paper and pencil instrumentation to assess consistency with measurements - assuring each concept is being measured equally Internal consistency Each item should be measured consistently - within an instrument Statistical procedure used is Cronbach's alpha coefficient Validity Determination of how well the instrument reflects the concept being examined Construct validity A single broad method of measurement evaluation, includes content and predictive validity Content validity Examines the extent to which the measurement method or scale includes all the major elements or items relevant to the construct being measured Readability Focuses on the study participants' ability to read and comprehend the content of an instrument or scale Evidence of validity from contrasting groups Tested by identifying groups that are expected to have contrasting scores on an instrument Evidence of validity from convergence Determined when a relatively new instrument is compared with an existing instrument(s) that measures the same construct Evidence of validity fro divergence Measuring an instrument against an instrument which measures the direct opposite concept Physiologic measures Measurement methods used to quantify the level of functioning of living beings Physiologic measures include characteristics of precision, accuracy, and error Accuracy Addresses the extent to which the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure in a study Comparable to validity Precision The degree of consistency or reproducibility of measurements made with physiological instruments Comparable to reliability Environmental Error Error that affects equipment and participant User error Error caused by the person using the equipment Subject error Error that occurs when the participant alters the equipment or vice versa Equipment error Occurs when there is an error in calibration or stability Interpretation error Occurs when there is an error by researchers in report or interpretation of data Gold standard The most accurate means of currently diagnosing a particular disease and serves as a basis for comparison with newly developed diagnostic or screening tests True positive An accurate identification of the presence of a disease False positive Indicated that a disease is present when it is not True negative Indicates accurately that a disease is not present False negative Indicates that a disease is not present when it is Sensitivity The proportion of participants/patients with the disease who have a positive test result, or true positive Specificity The proportion of patient without the disease what have a negative test result, or true negative Likelihood ratios Calculation that can help researchers determine the accuracy of diagnostic or screening tests Calculated to determine the likelihood that a positive test result is a true positive and that a negative test is a true negative Positive likelihood Ratio of the true-positive results to false-positive results Negative likelihood Ratio of true-negative to false-negative results Observational measurement A measurement strategy where there is an interaction between the study participants and observer(s) The observer has the opportunity to watch the participant perform in a specific setting Unstructured observational measurement Spontaneously observing and recording what is seen in words Structured observational measurement The researcher carefully defines what he or she will observe and how the observations are to be made, recorded, and coded as numbers Structured Interview Content is similar to that of a questionnaire, with the possible responses to the question carefully designed by the researcher Unstructured interview An interview where the content is controlled by the study participant Questionnaires Self-report forms designed to elicit information through written, verbal, or electronic responses of the subject Sometimes referred to as surveys Questions that go unanswered may threaten validity Scales A form of self-report, more precise means of measuring phenomena than a questionnaire Most measure psychological variables, but can be used for physiologic measures as well such as pain. Rating scales Lists an ordered series of categories of a variable that are assumed to be based on an underlying continuum Likert scale Designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study participants Visual analog scale Used to measure strength, magnitude, or intensity of individuals' subjective feelings, sensations, or attitudes about symptoms or situations