Chapters 1-6 Cognitive Psychology correctly Answered

artificial intelligence - ANSWERSA branch of computer science concerned with creating computers that mimic human performance on cognitive tasks. association - ANSWERSA connection or link between two units or elements. attention - ANSWERSCognitive resources, mental effort, or concentration devoted to a cognitive process. behaviorism - ANSWERSA school of psychology that seeks to define psychological research in terms of observable measures, emphasizing the scientific study of behavior. between-subjects design - ANSWERSA research paradigm in which different experimental subjects participate in different experimental conditions. brain imaging - ANSWERSThe construction of pictures of the anatomy and functioning of intact brains through such techniques as computerized axial tomography (CAT, or CT), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). clinical interview - ANSWERSA research paradigm in which an investigator begins by asking participants a series of open-ended questions but follows up on the responses with specific questions that have been prepared in advance. cognitive neuropsychology - ANSWERSA school of psychology that investigates the cognitive abilities and deficits of people with damaged or otherwise unusual brain structures. cognitive revolution - ANSWERSA movement in psychology that culminated after World War II, characterized by a belief in the empirical accessibility of mental states and events. cognitive science - ANSWERSAn interdisciplinary field drawing on research from cognitive psychology, computer science, philosophy, linguistics, neuroscience, and anthropology. The central issues addressed involve the nature of mind and cognition and how information is acquired, stored, and represented. computer metaphor - ANSWERSThe basis for the information processing view of the brain. Different types of psychological processes are thought to be analogous to the workings of a computer processor. connectionism - ANSWERSAn approach to cognition emphasizing parallel processing of information through immense networks of interconnected nodes. Models developed in the connectionist tradition are sometimes declared to share certain similarities with the way collections of neurons operate in the brain; hence, some connectionist models are referred to as neural networks. controlled observation - ANSWERSA research paradigm in which an observer standardizes the conditions of observation for all participants, often introducing specific manipulations and recording responses. decision making - ANSWERSThe process(es) by which an individual selects one course of action from among alternatives. ecological approach - ANSWERSAn approach to the study of cognition emphasizing the natural contexts or settings in which cognitive activities occur, and the influences such settings have in the ways in which cognitive activities are acquired, practiced, and executed. ecological validity - ANSWERSA property of research such that the focus of study is something that occurs naturally outside an experimental laboratory. empiricism - ANSWERSA philosophical doctrine emphasizing the role of experience in the acquisition of knowledge. experiment - ANSWERSA test of a scientific theory in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable. experimental control - ANSWERSA property of research such that the causes of different behaviors or other phenomenon can be isolated and tested. Typically, this involves manipulating independent variables and holding constant all factors but the one(s) of interest. functionalism - ANSWERSA school of psychology emphasizing questions such as why the mind or a particular cognitive process works the way(s) it does. genetic epistemology - ANSWERSA Piagetian approach to the study of cognitive development that emphasizes the intellectual structures underlying cognitive experience at different developmental points and the ways in which the structures adapt to environmental experience. Gestalt psychology - ANSWERSA school of psychology emphasizing the study of whole entities rather than simple elements. Gestalt psychologists concentrate on problems of perception and problem solving and argue that people's cognitive experience is not reducible to their experience of simple elements (for example, sensations) but, rather, to the overall structure(s) of their experience. human factors engineering - ANSWERSAn applied area of research that focuses on the design of equipment and technology that are well suited to people's cognitive capabilities. individual differences - ANSWERSStable patterns of performance that differ qualitatively and/or quantitatively across individuals. information processing approach - ANSWERSAn approach to cognition that uses a computer metaphor in its explanations. Information processing equates cognition with the acquisition, storage, and manipulation of information (for example, what we see, hear, read about, think about) through a system consisting of various storage places and systems of exchange. introspection - ANSWERSA methodological technique in which trained observers are asked to reflect on, and report on, their conscious experience while performing cognitive tasks. knowledge representation - ANSWERSThe mental depiction, storage, and organization of information. language - ANSWERSA system of communication that is governed by a system of rules (a grammar) and can express an infinite number of propositions. language acquisition - ANSWERSThe process(es) by which a cognitive processor comes to develop linguistic competence and performance. limited-capacity processor - ANSWERSA system that acquires, stores, manipulates, and/or transmits information but has fixed limits on the amount or rate of processing that it can accomplish. linguistics - ANSWERSA field of study focusing on the structure, use, and acquisition of language. localization of function - ANSWERSThe "mapping" of brain areas to different cognitive or motor functions; identifying which neural regions control or are active when different activities take place. memory - ANSWERSThe cognitive processes underlying the storage, retention, and retrieval of information. mental representation - ANSWERSAn internal depiction of information. nativism - ANSWERSA philosophical doctrine emphasizing the role of innate factors in the acquisition of knowledge. naturalistic observation - ANSWERSA research paradigm in which an observer observes participants in familiar, everyday contexts while ideally remaining as unobtrusive as possible. neural network - ANSWERSSee connectionism. paradigm - ANSWERSA body of knowledge that selects and highlights certain issues for study. It includes assumptions about how a particular phenomenon ought to be studied and the kinds of experimental methods and measures that are appropriate to use. pattern recognition - ANSWERSThe classification of a stimulus into a category. perception - ANSWERSThe interpretation of sensory information to yield a meaningful description or understanding. person-machine system - ANSWERSThe idea that machinery operated by a person must be designed to interact with the operator's physical, cognitive, and motivational capacities and limitations. problem solving - ANSWERSThe cognitive process(es) used in transforming starting information into a goal state, using specified means of solution. quasi-experiment - ANSWERSAn empirical study that appears to involve some, but incomplete, experimental control—for example, through nonrandom assignment of subjects to conditions. reasoning - ANSWERSCognitive process(es) used in transforming given information, called premises, into conclusions. Reasoning is often seen as a special kind of thinking. recall - ANSWERSThe retrieval of information in which the processor must generate most of the information without aids. See also recognition. recognition - ANSWERSThe retrieval of information in which the processor must decide whether the information presented has been previously presented. See also recall. structuralism - ANSWERSOne of the earliest schools of cognitive psychology. It focused on the search for the simplest possible mental elements and the laws governing the ways in which they could be combined. within-subjects design - ANSWERSA research paradigm in which the same experimental subjects participate in different experimental conditions. amygdale - ANSWERSAn area of brain tissue with extensive connections to the olfactory system and hypothalamus, thought to be involved in mood, feeling, instinct, and short-term memory. anterograde amnesia - ANSWERSLack of memory for events that occur after a brain injury. autobiographical memory - ANSWERSMemory for events and other information from one's own life. context effect - ANSWERSThe effect on a cognitive process (for example, perception) of the information surrounding the target object or event. Sometimes called "expectation effect" because the context is thought to set up certain expectations in the mind of the cognitive processor. cue overload - ANSWERSA principle of memory that states a retrieval cue will be most effective when it is highly distinctive and not related to any other target memories. encoding specificity - ANSWERSA principle of retrieval asserted by Tulving: At the time material is first put into long-term memory, it is encoded in a particular way, depending on the context present at the time; at the time of recall, the person is at a great advantage if the same information available at encoding is once again available. encoding variability - ANSWERSThe way the encoding of information varies as a function of context. eyewitness memory - ANSWERSA narrative memory of a personally witnessed event. false memory - ANSWERS"Recollections" of "events" that never in fact occurred. See also recovered memory. fan effect - ANSWERSThe phenomenon whereby retrieval time to retrieve a particular fact about a concept increases as more facts are known about that concept. featural analysis - ANSWERSA model of perception emphasizing the analysis of a stimulus into parts, called features. flashbulb memory - ANSWERSA phenomenon in which people recall their personal circumstances (for example, where they were, whom they were with, what they were doing) at the time they heard of or witnessed an unexpected and very significant event (for example, an assassination, a natural disaster). hippocampus - ANSWERSA structure of the brain in the medial temporal lobe; damage or removal can result in amnesia. incidental learning - ANSWERSThe retention of information even when it is not required of, or even intended by, the processor. levels-of-processing theory of memory - ANSWERSAn alternative to the modal view of memory, proposed by Craik and Lockhart, that postulates that memory depends not on a particular memory store but on the initial processing done to the information at the time of acquisition. "Shallow" or superficial levels of processing (for example, processing at the level of visual shape or acoustic sound) are thought to lead to less retention than "deeper" levels of processing (for example, processing done on the meaning of the information). memory consolidation - ANSWERSThe biochemical process(es) by which neural synaptic connections are strengthened or weakened. mnemonics - ANSWERSStrategies to facilitate retention and later retrieval of information. mood-dependent memory effect - ANSWERSThe empirical finding that people's ability to recall information is best when their mood at the time of recall matches their mood at the time of learning. paired associates learning - ANSWERSA memory task in which experimental subjects are first presented with a list of pairs of words (for example, flag- spoon) and later asked to recall the second word in a pair (for example, spoon) when presented with the first (for example, flag). recovered memory - ANSWERSAutobiographical memories, usually of traumatic events, that are not accessible for some period of time but later become able to be retrieved. See also false memory. repressed memory - ANSWERSA controversial explanation of amnesia for traumatic events. See also false memory, recovered memory. retrieval cue - ANSWERSA stimulus that helps a person recall or recognize stored information. retroactive interference - ANSWERSA phenomenon in which subsequently learned material lowers the probability of recalling earlier learned material. retrograde amnesia - ANSWERSAmnesia concerning old events. schemata - ANSWERSFrameworks for organizing and representing knowledge that contain roles, variables, and fixed parts. spacing effect - ANSWERSA phenomenon in which recall of material that is presented repeatedly is superior when the presentations are some time apart rather than immediately following one another. state-dependent learning - ANSWERSThe phenomenon that recall is easier when the pharmacological state of the person at recall matches his or her pharmacological state during encoding. state-dependent memory - ANSWERSThe phenomenon that material is easier to retrieve when the learner is experiencing the same state or context (for example, physical location, physiological state) that she or he was experiencing at the time of encoding. See also encoding specificity. anterograde amnesia - ANSWERSLack of memory for events that occur after a brain injury. capacity - ANSWERSThe sum total of cognitive resources available at any given time. central executive - ANSWERSThe proposed component of working memory responsible for directing the flow of information and selecting what information to work with. chunking - ANSWERSThe formation of individual units of information into larger units. This is often used as a means of overcoming short-term memory limitations. coding - ANSWERSThe form in which information is mentally or internally represented. decay - ANSWERSA hypothesized process of forgetting in which material is thought to erode, break apart, or otherwise disintegrate or fade. echo - ANSWERSA sensory memory for auditory stimuli. encoding - ANSWERSThe cognitive process(es) by which information is translated into a mental or internal representation and stored. exhaustive search - ANSWERSA search for information in which each item in a set is examined, even after the target is found. forgetting - ANSWERSThe processes that prevent information from being retrieved from a memory store. icon - ANSWERSA sensory memory for visual stimuli. interference - ANSWERSA hypothesized process of forgetting in which material is thought to be buried or otherwise displaced by other information but still exists somewhere in a memory store. long-term memory (LTM) - ANSWERSA memory store thought to have a large, possibly infinite capacity that holds onto incoming information for long periods of time, perhaps permanently. Also called secondary memory. long-term potentiation - ANSWERSA process, hypothesized to be a mechanism for long-term learning, in which neural circuits in the hippocampus are subjected to repeated and intense electrical stimulation, resulting in hippocampal cells that are more sensitive to stimuli than they were previously. LTM - ANSWERSSee long-term memory. memory trace - ANSWERSThe mental representation of stored information. modal model of memory - ANSWERSA theoretical approach to the study of memory that emphasizes the existence of different memory stores (for example, sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory). parallel search - ANSWERSA search for information in which several stores or slots of information are simultaneously examined to match to the target. phonological loop - ANSWERSThe proposed component of working memory responsible for subvocally rehearsing auditory information. primacy effect - ANSWERSThe improvement in retention of information learned at the beginning of a task. proactive interference - ANSWERSA phenomenon in which earlier learned material disrupts the learning of subsequent material. recency effect - ANSWERSThe improvement in retention of information learned at the end of a task. rehearsal - ANSWERSA mnemonic strategy of repeating information (either aloud or silently) to facilitate retention and later retrieval. retention duration - ANSWERSThe amount of time a memory trace remains available for retrieval. retrieval - ANSWERSThe processes by which stored information is brought back to conscious awareness. retrograde amnesia - ANSWERSAmnesia concerning old events. self-terminating search - ANSWERSA search for information that stops when a target is found. sensory memory - ANSWERSA memory store thought to hold onto incoming sensory information for very brief periods of time. A different sensory memory store is hypothesized for each sensory system. serial position effect - ANSWERSThe phenomenon that items at the beginning or end of a list of items are more easily recalled than are items from the middle of the list. serial search - ANSWERSA search for information in which several stores or slots of information are sequentially examined to match to the target. short-term memory (STM) - ANSWERSA memory store thought to hold onto incoming information for up to 20-30 seconds. Also called "primary memory." It is thought to have a small capacity (up to 7 plus or minus 2 "slots"). STM - ANSWERSSee short-term memory. storage - ANSWERSThe mental "holding on" to information between the time it is encoded and the time it is retrieved. visuospatial sketch pad - ANSWERSThe proposed component of working memory that maintains visual or spatial information. working memory (WM) - ANSWERSA memory structure proposed by Baddeley, described as consisting of a limited-capacity work space that can be allocated, somewhat flexibly, into storage space and control processing. It is thought to consist of three components: a central executive, a phonological loop, and a visuospatial sketch pad. attention hypothesis of automatization - ANSWERSThe proposal that attention is needed during a learning phase of a new task. attentional capture - ANSWERSA phenomenon in which certain stimuli seem to "pop out" and require a person to shift cognitive resources to them, automatically. attenuation theory - ANSWERSA model of attention in which unattended perceptual events are transmitted in weakened form but not blocked completely before being processed for meaning. automatic processing - ANSWERSThe carrying out of a cognitive task with minimal resources. Typically, automatic processing occurs without intention, interferes minimally with other cognitive tasks, and may not involve conscious awareness. controlled processing - ANSWERSThe carrying out of a cognitive task with a deliberate allocation of cognitive resources. Typically, controlled processing occurs on difficult and/or unfamiliar tasks requiring attention and is under conscious control. dichotic listening task - ANSWERSA task in which a person hears two or more different, specially recorded messages over earphones and is asked to attend to one of them. divided attention - ANSWERSThe ways in which a cognitive processor allocates cognitive resources to two or more tasks that are carried out simultaneously. dual-task performance - ANSWERSAn experimental paradigm involving presentation of two tasks for a person to work on simultaneously. ERP - ANSWERSSee event-related potential. event-related potential (ERP) - ANSWERSAn electrical recording technique to measure the response of the brain to various stimulus events. feature integration theory - ANSWERSA proposal that perception of familiar stimuli occurs in two stages. The first, automatic, stage involves the perception of object features. The second, attentional, stage involves the integration and unification of those features. filter theory - ANSWERSA theory of attention proposing that information that exceeds the capacity of a processor to process at any given time is blocked from further processing. inattentional blindness - ANSWERSThe phenomenon of not perceiving a stimulus that might be literally right in front of you, unless you are paying attention to it. late-selection theory - ANSWERSA model of attention in which all perceptual messages, whether attended or not, are processed for some meaning. priming - ANSWERSThe facilitation in responding to one stimulus as a function of prior exposure to another stimulus. psychological refractory period (PRP) - ANSWERSAn interval of time following presentation of a first stimulus during which a person cannot respond to a second stimulus, presumably because of a central bottleneck in attentional processing. schema theory - ANSWERSA theory of attention that claims unattended information is never perceived. selective attention - ANSWERSThe focusing of cognitive resources on one or a small number of tasks to the exclusion of others. Stroop task - ANSWERSA task invented by J. R. Stroop in which a subject sees a list of words (color terms) printed in an ink color that differs from the word named (for example, green printed in blue ink). The subject is asked to name the ink colors of the words in the list and demonstrates great difficulty in doing so, relative to a condition in which noncolor words form the stimuli. affordance - ANSWERSA perceptual property of objects, places, and events that makes clear what actions or behaviors on the part of the perceiver are permitted in interaction with the object, place, or event. bottom-up process - ANSWERSCognitive (usually perceptual) process guided by environmental input. Also called "data-driven" process. change blindness - ANSWERSThe inability to detect changes to an object or scene, especially when given different views of that object or scene. constructivist approach to perception - ANSWERSAn understanding of perception as a process requiring the active construction of subjective mental representations not only from perceptual information, but from long-term memory as well. context effect - ANSWERSThe effect on a cognitive process (for example, perception) of the information surrounding the target object or event. Sometimes called "expectation effect" because the context is thought to set up certain expectations in the mind of the cognitive processor. data-driven processes - ANSWERSSee bottom-up processes. direct perception - ANSWERSA theory of perception, proposed by James J. Gibson, holding that information in the world is "picked up on" by the cognitive processor without much construction of internal representations or inferences. The emphasis is on direct acquisition of information. distal stimulus - ANSWERSAn object, event, or pattern as it exists in the world. Contrast with proximal stimulus. feature - ANSWERSA component, or part, of an object, event, or representation. form perception - ANSWERSThe process by which the brain differentiates objects from their backgrounds. geon - ANSWERSA simple geometric component hypothesized to be used in the recognition of objects. Gestalt principles of perceptual organization - ANSWERSLaws that explain the regularities in the way people come to the perceptual interpretations of stimuli. The emphasis is on the apprehension of whole structures rather on than the detection and assembly of parts of structures. Pandemonium model - ANSWERSA model of letter perception based on a bottom-up hierarchy of feature detectors. pattern recognition - ANSWERSThe classification of a stimulus into a category. percept - ANSWERSThe outcome of a perceptual process; the meaningful interpretation of incoming information. perception - ANSWERSThe interpretation of sensory information to yield a meaningful description or understanding. perceptual learning - ANSWERSThe changes in perception that occur as a function of practice or experience with the stimuli. phoneme - ANSWERSThe smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a given language. prosopagnosia - ANSWERSA specific inability to recognize faces, even very familiar ones, with intact recognition of other objects. prototype - ANSWERSAn abstract representation of an idealized member of a class of objects or events. proximal stimulus - ANSWERSReception of information and its registration by a sense organ—for example, retinal images in the case of vision. retina - ANSWERSA layer of visual receptor cells at the rear of the eyeball. retinal image - ANSWERSA proximal stimulus for vision, consisting of the projection of light waves reflected from stimuli and projected to a surface at the back of the eye. schema - ANSWERSAn organized framework for representing knowledge that typically includes characters, plots, and settings, and incorporates both general knowledge about the world and information about particular events. size constancy - ANSWERSThe phenomenon that one's perception of an object remains constant even as the retinal image of the object changes size (for example, because the object has moved closer or farther away from the perceiver). subjective contour - ANSWERSIllusory outline created by certain visual cues that lead to erroneous form perception. The existence of this phenomenon suggests that perception is an active constructive process. template - ANSWERSA stored pattern or model to which incoming information is matched in order to be recognized and classified. top-down process - ANSWERSCognitive (usually perceptual) process directed by expectations (derived from context, past learning, or both) to form a larger percept, concept, or interpretation. Also called conceptually driven or theory-driven process. visual agnosia - ANSWERSAn impairment in the ability to interpret (but not to see) visual information. visual search task - ANSWERSA task in which subjects are asked to detect the presence of a particular target against an array of similar stimuli. word superiority effect - ANSWERSThe phenomenon that single letters are more quickly identified in the context of words than they are when presented alone or in the context of random letters. ablation - ANSWERSRemoval of cells or tissues, often through surgical means. amygdale - ANSWERSAn area of brain tissue with extensive connections to the olfactory system and hypothalamus, thought to be involved in mood, feeling, instinct, and short-term memory. aphasia - ANSWERSA disorder of language, thought to have neurological causes, in which either language production, language reception, or both are disrupted. CAT scan - ANSWERSSee computerized axial tomography scan. cerebellum - ANSWERSPart of the brain that controls balance and muscular coordination. cerebral cortex - ANSWERSThe surface of the cerebrum, the largest structure of the brain, containing both sensory and motor nerve cell bodies. computerized axial tomography (CAT, or CT) scan - ANSWERSAn imaging technique in which a highly focused beam of X-rays is passed through the body from many different angles. Differing density of the organs of the body result in different deflections of the X-rays, which allows visualization of the organ. corpus callosum - ANSWERSThe large neural structure containing fibers that connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres.