Introduction to political science
notes
The exam consists of concept questions and essay questions
Lecture 1 – introduction
Origins of political science
Ancient Greeks:
Plato – political thought / philosophy
Aristotle – systematic empirical observation
Herodotus – historical and comparative
Renaissance/enlightenment/scientific revolution
Machiavelli, Voltaire, Rousseau, Locke, Hobbes
Leiden university: Daniel Heinsius (1580-1655)
Professor politices
World’s 1st chair in political science
Modern-day political science
Research areas emerged along with real word developments
Comparative politics – creation of states
International politics – interactions between states
Transnational politics – movement across state borders
Beyond U.S. Europe – globalisation
Study of citizens – process and waves of democratisation
But there were also scientific developments in other disciplines
Disciplinary influences
Political science – study of one aspect of human behaviour/life from different
theoretical perspectives, it is a social science of politics
Similar to criminology in this respect
Not one theoretical approach completely dominates the field
‘Celebration of diversity’
Disciplinary influences Theoretical approaches
Philosophy Behaviouralism
Law Rational choice
History (neo)institutionalism
Anthropology Constructivism
Sociology Marxism
Psychology Feminism
(micro) economics Normative political theory
What is political science
A theoretical approach
Determines the answer to these questions
Determines research puzzle, research question, conceptualisation,
operationalisation into variable, research design, research method, etc
A minimalist approach: ordered knowledge based on systematic enquiry
,Conceptualising politics
Arena – focus on formal (government) institutions and actors within who seek to
influence it (mainstream political world)
(neo-)institutionalism, rational choice, Behaviouralism
Process – politics is inscribed in all social processes
Constructivism, feminism, Marxism
The former is narrow, risks omitting structures and actors
The latter is broad, risks conceptual overstretching
Defining politics
The constrained use of social power
Enabling collective choice and action, without simple resort to (threat of) force or
violence (but not excluded)
Politics enables some, but constrains others
Politics has intended, but also unintended consequences
Politics is active, as well as passive
Most political scientist focus on collective and public elements of power struggles
Concepts, theories, and hypotheses
To conduct science (study, analyse) is to compare
To compare, we need points of reference (concepts)
Conceptualisation is (to a large extent) determined by theoretical perspective
(theory)
This drives research focus and design (hypotheses)
Lecture 2 – theories, concepts, hypotheses
What is a theory in political science?
Theories help us understand and analyse political phenomena
Theories bridge what we observe in the political world and how we explain or
understand these
Not all theories are created equal; they differ in scope, focus, and how they are
applied
Defining theory in political science
Definitions – a systematic and organised set of ideas that help understand and
analyze political phenomena
Different theories have different roles: they can be explaining, understanding,
evaluating, and prescribing
,Textbook on empirical theory: a general set of explanatory claims about some
specifiable empirical range
Normative versus empirical theories
Normative theories are ethical and value-driven
Often stemming from philosophy
They seek to evaluate or prescribe
Empirical theories are grounded in observation, data collection, and factual
analysis
They seek to explain or understand
Theoretical approaches in political science
Behaviouralism: emphasises observable and measurable behaviours, especially
in context of voting patterns and public opinion
Rational choice theory: works from the assumption that individuals often engage
in politics based on calculated decisions, aiming to maximise their interest
Institutionalism: highlights how formal structures, institutions, and procedures
play a central role in shaping political actions and outcomes
Constructivism: underscores how politics is deeply influenced by shared beliefs,
norms, and ideas
Marxism: stresses politics as an arena of class struggle, rooted in economic
determinism and power dynamics
Feminism: focuses on gender relations, patriarchal structures, and the fight for
gender equality within the political sphere
Hypotheses and falsification
Some empirical theories (mostly positivist) can be used to generate causal
hypotheses
Hypothesis: ‘a specific prediction, derived from a theory, that can be tested
against empirical evidence’
Testing a hypothesis, strictly speaking, means trying to prove it wrong
If a theory generates a lot of hypotheses that are rejected, the theory may need
to be updated or abandoned
Alternatives to hypothesis testing
Interpretative inquiry
Thick description (Geertz)
Critical theory, including Marxist, feminist, and post-colonial perspectives
Normative analysis
What is a concept in political science?
To do political science we need to be able to compare
, To compare we need points of reference (concepts
Concepts – abstract categories or representations, used to capture and
communicate specific (features of) political phenomena or ideas
Articulating concepts – conceptualisation
What makes a concept good:
Clarity and coherence: concepts can be easily understood without multiple
possible interpretations
Logically consistency: the requirement that:
- Definitional elements of a concept must not logically conflict
- Related concepts must be mutually intelligible
Usefulness: beyond academic rigor, a concept should add value to
discussions, comparisons, and even policymaking in the real world
Literature and conceptualisation
Conceptualisation often requires reading existing literature defining political
concepts
If we can adopt an established definition of a concept rather than creating our
own, this roots our use in an academic debate/literature
But concepts do not exist in the world, existing definitions should be held to the
standards of clarity, coherence, consistency and usefulness
From conceptualisation to operationalisation
Once we decide on clear, coherent, consistent, and useful concepts the next task
is operationalisation
Operationalisation – the process of making concepts measurable, and is
particularly important for empirical theories
It is important that operational measures truly reflect the core essence of a
concept, though there can be pragmatic concessions
Most importantly, we should not retrofit concepts to what we happen to be able
to measure easily
Example: populism
Good and bad definitions of populism
‘Good’ definition: A political approach or movement characterized by a
charismatic leader and direct appeals to the masses, emphasizing the interests
of ordinary people, contrasted to an entrenched, corrupt elite.
‘Bad’ definition: When a political leader exploits the emotions of ordinary people,
like when Donald Trump gave election speeches accusing Hillary Clinton of
criminal behaviour.
Populism as an ideational concept
Ideational definition: populism is a thin centered ideology that considers society
to be separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, “the pure
people” and “the corrupt elite” (Mudde 2007)
notes
The exam consists of concept questions and essay questions
Lecture 1 – introduction
Origins of political science
Ancient Greeks:
Plato – political thought / philosophy
Aristotle – systematic empirical observation
Herodotus – historical and comparative
Renaissance/enlightenment/scientific revolution
Machiavelli, Voltaire, Rousseau, Locke, Hobbes
Leiden university: Daniel Heinsius (1580-1655)
Professor politices
World’s 1st chair in political science
Modern-day political science
Research areas emerged along with real word developments
Comparative politics – creation of states
International politics – interactions between states
Transnational politics – movement across state borders
Beyond U.S. Europe – globalisation
Study of citizens – process and waves of democratisation
But there were also scientific developments in other disciplines
Disciplinary influences
Political science – study of one aspect of human behaviour/life from different
theoretical perspectives, it is a social science of politics
Similar to criminology in this respect
Not one theoretical approach completely dominates the field
‘Celebration of diversity’
Disciplinary influences Theoretical approaches
Philosophy Behaviouralism
Law Rational choice
History (neo)institutionalism
Anthropology Constructivism
Sociology Marxism
Psychology Feminism
(micro) economics Normative political theory
What is political science
A theoretical approach
Determines the answer to these questions
Determines research puzzle, research question, conceptualisation,
operationalisation into variable, research design, research method, etc
A minimalist approach: ordered knowledge based on systematic enquiry
,Conceptualising politics
Arena – focus on formal (government) institutions and actors within who seek to
influence it (mainstream political world)
(neo-)institutionalism, rational choice, Behaviouralism
Process – politics is inscribed in all social processes
Constructivism, feminism, Marxism
The former is narrow, risks omitting structures and actors
The latter is broad, risks conceptual overstretching
Defining politics
The constrained use of social power
Enabling collective choice and action, without simple resort to (threat of) force or
violence (but not excluded)
Politics enables some, but constrains others
Politics has intended, but also unintended consequences
Politics is active, as well as passive
Most political scientist focus on collective and public elements of power struggles
Concepts, theories, and hypotheses
To conduct science (study, analyse) is to compare
To compare, we need points of reference (concepts)
Conceptualisation is (to a large extent) determined by theoretical perspective
(theory)
This drives research focus and design (hypotheses)
Lecture 2 – theories, concepts, hypotheses
What is a theory in political science?
Theories help us understand and analyse political phenomena
Theories bridge what we observe in the political world and how we explain or
understand these
Not all theories are created equal; they differ in scope, focus, and how they are
applied
Defining theory in political science
Definitions – a systematic and organised set of ideas that help understand and
analyze political phenomena
Different theories have different roles: they can be explaining, understanding,
evaluating, and prescribing
,Textbook on empirical theory: a general set of explanatory claims about some
specifiable empirical range
Normative versus empirical theories
Normative theories are ethical and value-driven
Often stemming from philosophy
They seek to evaluate or prescribe
Empirical theories are grounded in observation, data collection, and factual
analysis
They seek to explain or understand
Theoretical approaches in political science
Behaviouralism: emphasises observable and measurable behaviours, especially
in context of voting patterns and public opinion
Rational choice theory: works from the assumption that individuals often engage
in politics based on calculated decisions, aiming to maximise their interest
Institutionalism: highlights how formal structures, institutions, and procedures
play a central role in shaping political actions and outcomes
Constructivism: underscores how politics is deeply influenced by shared beliefs,
norms, and ideas
Marxism: stresses politics as an arena of class struggle, rooted in economic
determinism and power dynamics
Feminism: focuses on gender relations, patriarchal structures, and the fight for
gender equality within the political sphere
Hypotheses and falsification
Some empirical theories (mostly positivist) can be used to generate causal
hypotheses
Hypothesis: ‘a specific prediction, derived from a theory, that can be tested
against empirical evidence’
Testing a hypothesis, strictly speaking, means trying to prove it wrong
If a theory generates a lot of hypotheses that are rejected, the theory may need
to be updated or abandoned
Alternatives to hypothesis testing
Interpretative inquiry
Thick description (Geertz)
Critical theory, including Marxist, feminist, and post-colonial perspectives
Normative analysis
What is a concept in political science?
To do political science we need to be able to compare
, To compare we need points of reference (concepts
Concepts – abstract categories or representations, used to capture and
communicate specific (features of) political phenomena or ideas
Articulating concepts – conceptualisation
What makes a concept good:
Clarity and coherence: concepts can be easily understood without multiple
possible interpretations
Logically consistency: the requirement that:
- Definitional elements of a concept must not logically conflict
- Related concepts must be mutually intelligible
Usefulness: beyond academic rigor, a concept should add value to
discussions, comparisons, and even policymaking in the real world
Literature and conceptualisation
Conceptualisation often requires reading existing literature defining political
concepts
If we can adopt an established definition of a concept rather than creating our
own, this roots our use in an academic debate/literature
But concepts do not exist in the world, existing definitions should be held to the
standards of clarity, coherence, consistency and usefulness
From conceptualisation to operationalisation
Once we decide on clear, coherent, consistent, and useful concepts the next task
is operationalisation
Operationalisation – the process of making concepts measurable, and is
particularly important for empirical theories
It is important that operational measures truly reflect the core essence of a
concept, though there can be pragmatic concessions
Most importantly, we should not retrofit concepts to what we happen to be able
to measure easily
Example: populism
Good and bad definitions of populism
‘Good’ definition: A political approach or movement characterized by a
charismatic leader and direct appeals to the masses, emphasizing the interests
of ordinary people, contrasted to an entrenched, corrupt elite.
‘Bad’ definition: When a political leader exploits the emotions of ordinary people,
like when Donald Trump gave election speeches accusing Hillary Clinton of
criminal behaviour.
Populism as an ideational concept
Ideational definition: populism is a thin centered ideology that considers society
to be separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, “the pure
people” and “the corrupt elite” (Mudde 2007)
