PT-502: Patho Exam 1 at D'youville
Summer
Hypotonic alteration - ANS-occur when the osmolality of the ECF is less than normal
- imbalance resulting in ECF concentration < 0.9% salt solution
-cell swell
Isotonic alteration - ANS-occur when changes in TBW are accompanied by proportional
changes in electrolytes
-gain or loss of ECF resulting in a concentration of equivalent to a 0.9% NaCl solution (normal
saline)
- no shrinking or swelling of cells
Hypertonic alterations - ANS-develop when the osmolality of the ECF is elevated above normal,
usually because of an increased concentration of ECF sodium or a deficit of ECF water
- imbalance resulting in ECF concentration > 0.9% salt solution
Hyperkalemia - ANS-(potassium levels that are greater than 5.5 mEq/L) may be caused by
increased potassium intake, a shift of potassium from the ICF to the ECF, or decreased renal
excretion.
- causes hyperpolarization
Hypokalemia - ANS-(serum potassium concentration less than 3.5 mEq/L) indicates loss of total
body potassium, although ECF hypokalemia can develop without losses of total body
potassium, and plasma potassium levels may be normal or elevated when total body potassium
is depleted.
- Hypokalemia may be caused by reduced potassium intake, a shift of potassium from the ECF
to the ICF, increased aldosterone secretion, increased renal excretion, and alkalosis.
- causes hyperpolarization
Atrophy - ANS-cell shrink and reduce their differentiated functions in response to normal and
injurious factors
General causes: Disuse, Denervation, Ischemia, Nutrient starvation, Interruption of endocrine
signals, Persistent cell injury
hypertrophy - ANS-Increase in cell mass accompanied by an augmented functional capacity in
response to physiologic and pathophysiologic demands
, General cause: increased cellular protein content
hyperplasia - ANS-Increase in functional capacity related to an increase in cell number due to
mitotic division
- Usually in response to increased physiologic demands or hormonal stimulation
- Other causes: persistent cell injury, chronic irritation of epithelial cells
- Hyperplasia can lead to cancer: increased endometrial tissue with unopposed
dysplasia - ANS-Disorganized appearance of cells because of abnormal variations in size,
shape, and arrangement
- Represents an adaptive effort gone astray
- Significant potential to transform into cancerous cells (preneoplastic lesions)
- Dysplasia that is seen on a biopsy of the cervix is called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
(CIN). It is grouped into three categories: CIN I—mild dysplasia, CIN II—moderate to marked
dysplasia, CIN III—sever dysplasia to carcinoma in stiu
metaplasia - ANS-replacement of one differentiated cell type with another
- Common cause: adaptation to persistent injury, with replacement of a cell type that is better
suited to tolerate injurious stimulation
- Fully reversible when injurious stimulation is removed
DNA - ANS-Function: a double-stranded polymer consisting of a chain of nucleotides
- Nucleotide is an organic molecule made up of a nucleotide base, a five-carbon sugar (ribose
or deoxyribose) and at least one phosphate group
Structure:
Deoxyribonucleotide components
1. Phosphate
2. Sugar: Deoxyribose
3. Base Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
RNA - ANS-structure: a single stranded polymer of ribonucleotides
i. Components
1. Phosphate
2. Sugar: Ribose
3. Base: Adenine, Uracil, Guaning, Cytosine
function:
Genotype - ANS-an individual refers to the alleles they carry (ex. Straight hair)
Phenotype - ANS-the visible trait or outward expression of an allele combination
Summer
Hypotonic alteration - ANS-occur when the osmolality of the ECF is less than normal
- imbalance resulting in ECF concentration < 0.9% salt solution
-cell swell
Isotonic alteration - ANS-occur when changes in TBW are accompanied by proportional
changes in electrolytes
-gain or loss of ECF resulting in a concentration of equivalent to a 0.9% NaCl solution (normal
saline)
- no shrinking or swelling of cells
Hypertonic alterations - ANS-develop when the osmolality of the ECF is elevated above normal,
usually because of an increased concentration of ECF sodium or a deficit of ECF water
- imbalance resulting in ECF concentration > 0.9% salt solution
Hyperkalemia - ANS-(potassium levels that are greater than 5.5 mEq/L) may be caused by
increased potassium intake, a shift of potassium from the ICF to the ECF, or decreased renal
excretion.
- causes hyperpolarization
Hypokalemia - ANS-(serum potassium concentration less than 3.5 mEq/L) indicates loss of total
body potassium, although ECF hypokalemia can develop without losses of total body
potassium, and plasma potassium levels may be normal or elevated when total body potassium
is depleted.
- Hypokalemia may be caused by reduced potassium intake, a shift of potassium from the ECF
to the ICF, increased aldosterone secretion, increased renal excretion, and alkalosis.
- causes hyperpolarization
Atrophy - ANS-cell shrink and reduce their differentiated functions in response to normal and
injurious factors
General causes: Disuse, Denervation, Ischemia, Nutrient starvation, Interruption of endocrine
signals, Persistent cell injury
hypertrophy - ANS-Increase in cell mass accompanied by an augmented functional capacity in
response to physiologic and pathophysiologic demands
, General cause: increased cellular protein content
hyperplasia - ANS-Increase in functional capacity related to an increase in cell number due to
mitotic division
- Usually in response to increased physiologic demands or hormonal stimulation
- Other causes: persistent cell injury, chronic irritation of epithelial cells
- Hyperplasia can lead to cancer: increased endometrial tissue with unopposed
dysplasia - ANS-Disorganized appearance of cells because of abnormal variations in size,
shape, and arrangement
- Represents an adaptive effort gone astray
- Significant potential to transform into cancerous cells (preneoplastic lesions)
- Dysplasia that is seen on a biopsy of the cervix is called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
(CIN). It is grouped into three categories: CIN I—mild dysplasia, CIN II—moderate to marked
dysplasia, CIN III—sever dysplasia to carcinoma in stiu
metaplasia - ANS-replacement of one differentiated cell type with another
- Common cause: adaptation to persistent injury, with replacement of a cell type that is better
suited to tolerate injurious stimulation
- Fully reversible when injurious stimulation is removed
DNA - ANS-Function: a double-stranded polymer consisting of a chain of nucleotides
- Nucleotide is an organic molecule made up of a nucleotide base, a five-carbon sugar (ribose
or deoxyribose) and at least one phosphate group
Structure:
Deoxyribonucleotide components
1. Phosphate
2. Sugar: Deoxyribose
3. Base Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
RNA - ANS-structure: a single stranded polymer of ribonucleotides
i. Components
1. Phosphate
2. Sugar: Ribose
3. Base: Adenine, Uracil, Guaning, Cytosine
function:
Genotype - ANS-an individual refers to the alleles they carry (ex. Straight hair)
Phenotype - ANS-the visible trait or outward expression of an allele combination
