ARISTOTLE (384 - 322 BCE)!
Introduction
- The first systematic scientist!
- Student of Plato and addressed the shortcomings in his work. !
- Starts biological study as model for his philosophy!
- Difference between Plato and Aristotle: !
• Plato: Mathematics as model: focus on perfect, ideal entities that can be understood
by reason - maker inferences about concrete things (e.g. circles) !
• Aristotle: Biology as a model: focus on concrete entities that are experienced
through senses - make inferences about universal characteristics principles and
laws. !
• Plato started by studying particulars !
- E.g. Plato describes the perfect state, while Aristotle studies 158 states,
systematically orders them and explains which ones work the best in which
circumstances. !
• Aristotle then deduces fundamental truths (essences), from which new knowledge
can be deduced!
• Hence, science for Aristotle = complete, deductive system !
!
1. Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)
- Experience: !
• “All human beings by nature desire to know” !
• Wants to understand the world - essential to human beings !
• Source of all knowledge = senses (empiricism) !
• ‘Correct method’ - turn sensory experience into true knowledge !
• Method = rational discourse (“science”) !
• Knowledge = when we know how things are !
1
, • Wisdom = when you understand why they are the way they are (=the ultimate cause
and principles governing things)!
- Differs from Plato !
• Plato: We cannot have scientific knowledge of particulars because they are always
changing, hence he studies universals. !
• Aristotle: We can only start with particulars and the deduce universals (fundamental
truths) !
• Science goes beyond particulars by showing how particulars follow from
fundamental truths !
- Illustration of scientific knowledge !
• Artist: interested in superficial characteristics of particular tree (colour, texture, etc.) -
cannot be generalised to universal truths !
• Gardener: more knowledge, knows how to encourage growth in tree, etc. (knows
what works, but doesn't know why). !
• Scientists: not interested in specific tree, but in its universal, essential
characteristics - what is a tree, what makes it grow and why? !
- Hence, distinguishes between essential as opposed to accidental characteristics !
• Applied to human beings: accidental characteristics: characteristics that can change
without affecting my ‘humanness’ e.g. skin colour, limbs, senses !
• Essential characteristics: characteristics that cannot be changed without changing
my humanness (more difficult to determine) !
- Science for Aristotle !
• He inquires into the universal nature (essential characteristics) of things and find the
necessary connections between them. !
• = knowledge of the ultimate principles from which particular facts can be derived !
• Like geometry = consists of necessary truths demonstrated from self-evident
axioms and definitions !
• Deductive (In the 18th century, Hume will show that this is impossible) !
- Goal !
• He wants to establish fundamental principles underlying reality (partly in terms of
essential characteristics) !
• And then wants to deduce specific, universal facts !
2
Introduction
- The first systematic scientist!
- Student of Plato and addressed the shortcomings in his work. !
- Starts biological study as model for his philosophy!
- Difference between Plato and Aristotle: !
• Plato: Mathematics as model: focus on perfect, ideal entities that can be understood
by reason - maker inferences about concrete things (e.g. circles) !
• Aristotle: Biology as a model: focus on concrete entities that are experienced
through senses - make inferences about universal characteristics principles and
laws. !
• Plato started by studying particulars !
- E.g. Plato describes the perfect state, while Aristotle studies 158 states,
systematically orders them and explains which ones work the best in which
circumstances. !
• Aristotle then deduces fundamental truths (essences), from which new knowledge
can be deduced!
• Hence, science for Aristotle = complete, deductive system !
!
1. Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)
- Experience: !
• “All human beings by nature desire to know” !
• Wants to understand the world - essential to human beings !
• Source of all knowledge = senses (empiricism) !
• ‘Correct method’ - turn sensory experience into true knowledge !
• Method = rational discourse (“science”) !
• Knowledge = when we know how things are !
1
, • Wisdom = when you understand why they are the way they are (=the ultimate cause
and principles governing things)!
- Differs from Plato !
• Plato: We cannot have scientific knowledge of particulars because they are always
changing, hence he studies universals. !
• Aristotle: We can only start with particulars and the deduce universals (fundamental
truths) !
• Science goes beyond particulars by showing how particulars follow from
fundamental truths !
- Illustration of scientific knowledge !
• Artist: interested in superficial characteristics of particular tree (colour, texture, etc.) -
cannot be generalised to universal truths !
• Gardener: more knowledge, knows how to encourage growth in tree, etc. (knows
what works, but doesn't know why). !
• Scientists: not interested in specific tree, but in its universal, essential
characteristics - what is a tree, what makes it grow and why? !
- Hence, distinguishes between essential as opposed to accidental characteristics !
• Applied to human beings: accidental characteristics: characteristics that can change
without affecting my ‘humanness’ e.g. skin colour, limbs, senses !
• Essential characteristics: characteristics that cannot be changed without changing
my humanness (more difficult to determine) !
- Science for Aristotle !
• He inquires into the universal nature (essential characteristics) of things and find the
necessary connections between them. !
• = knowledge of the ultimate principles from which particular facts can be derived !
• Like geometry = consists of necessary truths demonstrated from self-evident
axioms and definitions !
• Deductive (In the 18th century, Hume will show that this is impossible) !
- Goal !
• He wants to establish fundamental principles underlying reality (partly in terms of
essential characteristics) !
• And then wants to deduce specific, universal facts !
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