1
Do your choices have consequences?
Tilburg School of Social and Behavioral Sciences – Tilburg University course: Research
project for pre-master students’ sociology fall – Steffie Coolen 2135425
A paper about the effect of lifestyle choices on subjective general health with religion as
moderator – Due date: December 11, 2024
Abstract
This research looks at how lifestyle choices affect the subjective general health of individuals
in Europe. And how this relationship is affected by different religions, such as Christianity or
Islam. This is an important topic because the health of individuals in Europe has worsened in
the last couple of years. Our lifestyle choices shape our health. Different factors can influence
our lifestyle choices and health. One of these factors is religion. This research chose to zoom
into this factor because there is not much research yet. A positive relationship between healthy
lifestyle choices and good subjective general health is expected. It is expected that different
religions have a positive effect on the relationship between lifestyle choices and subjective
general health. Data from the European Social Survey 2023 round 11 (1.0) was used to test
the hypotheses. There was a small significant effect between lifestyle choices and subjective
general health. And there was no significant effect for the interaction variables, Christian and
Islam. This would mean that the expectation that specific religions have a positive effect on
lifestyle choices and subjective general health is rejected and that more research is needed to
look at the influences of religion.
Keywords: Subjective general health – Lifestyle choices – Religion
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Introduction
People’s health in Europe has been worsening in the past couple of years. There has
been a rise in the prevalence of chronic health conditions (Kerai, 2022). In 2019, 67,8% of the
European population over 18 reported sufficient health. Almost 1 in 10 (8,8%) of the
population perceived their health as bad (Eurostat, 2020). Health problems like obesity or
diabetes have been becoming major global health concerns over the past couple of years and
are still increasing (Calvert et al., 2020).
Our health is the product of the lifestyle choices we make in our everyday life. These
choices can be seen in our eating, physical activity, smoking, and drinking behaviors (Ahmed
et al.,2022). According to the World Health Organisation, poor lifestyle choices can be linked
to chronic and acute illnesses and high mortality rates now or in later life (Calvertet al.,2020;
Koulierakis et al., 2022). Factors that influence individuals’ lifestyle choices and health are
age, socioeconomic status, religion, living environments, and education (Ahmed et al., 2022;
Calvert et al., 2020; Koulierakis et al., 2022; Velze et al., 2020). These influences can make a
difference between a life expectancy of 3,3 years and a healthy life expectancy of almost 11
years. And it often concerns one or more chronic conditions (Velze et al., 2020).
Religion can be seen as a factor that influences the relationship between lifestyle
choices and subjective general health. This is because religious systems maintain certain ways
of living to imply their ideals; Muslims are not allowed to drink alcohol or eat carnivorous
animals (like pork) because this is not halal (Ahmed et al., 2022; Sarri et al., 2006), Catholics
are forbidden to eat meat on Fridays, and Orthodox Christians are recommended to fast for
200 days a year where they are forbidden to eat meat, dairy, and olive oil (Sarri et al., 2006).
The different religions can be set apart by their differences in values, norms, and habits
(Ahmed et al., 2022). These values, norms, and habits can influence the consumption of food,
alcohol, and forbidden substances (Sarri et al., 2006). When individuals in this involved
,3
society do not accept this implied lifestyle, they are threatening the values of the system
(Ahmed et al., 2022). This not only influences the lifestyle choices individuals make but also
the health outcomes that these individuals have. The main beliefs in Europe are the Christian
and Islamic faiths (Ahmed et al., 2022), because of this, the research will focus on these
religions.
Lifestyle factors play a crucial role in shaping an individual’s health within our society
(Calvert et al., 2020). Additionally, religion may influence lifestyle behaviors in different
ways. However, there is little understanding of how religion affects health outcomes and our
daily lifestyle choices. This research looks at the relationship between lifestyle choices and
health and investigates the influence of religion. To promote better health outcomes, it is
important to understand these connections and to know why individuals have certain lifestyle
choices (Calvert et al., 2020). When there is more understanding of these behaviors, negative
health outcomes can be minimized by interventions (Calvert et al., 2020; Koulierakis et al.,
2022). This can help to improve interventions for certain nations/countries, governments,
health organizations, and schools. By promoting healthy lifestyle choices, it is hoped that
lifestyle-related diseases will be reduced (Loannou et al., 2012). To let interventions make a
real difference, these should be at an early age because negative behaviors will continue in
later adulthood. This is why adolescence can be seen as an important time to develop and
maintain healthy lifestyle choices (Calvert et al., 2020). If sickness and need for treatment are
less, this can also help reduce the labor shortage and healthcare costs (Velze, 2020).
Therefore, further research in Europe about the influences of lifestyle choices and the relation
between religion is relevant to the well-being of society.
Recent studies have been more focused on the influences of gender factors,
socioeconomic status, living environments, age, and family status on lifestyle choices (Ahmed
et al., 2022; Calvert et al., 2020; Koulierakis et al., 2022; Velze et al., 2020). This research
, 4
will look at the gap between lifestyle and health studies, the specific influences of religion,
and the differences between the faiths. Also, almost all the studies are done in one or a few
countries but not in the continent of Europe; this research will not focus on one specific nation
or country but look at the broader perspective. The advantage of this is that when you look at
multiple countries, there is a chance there are findings generalized across the different
countries rather than specific for one country. This can help understand the differences
between populations in Europe and can be helpful for policy contexts so that you can create
policies for multiple countries rather than only for one country (Banks et al., 2020).
This research will focus on the following research questions:
1. How do lifestyle factors impact the overall subjective general health of people in
Europe?
2. Is the relationship between lifestyle factors and overall health affected by an
individual‘s religious belief in Europe, and if so, in what way?
The next chapter is the theoretical framework for this study. It will talk about what is
known about the topics from the literature, and hypotheses will be formed from this. The
methods section discusses how the data is analyzed and coded. The chapter results will show
the results from the analyses. The last chapter is the conclusion and discussion.
Do your choices have consequences?
Tilburg School of Social and Behavioral Sciences – Tilburg University course: Research
project for pre-master students’ sociology fall – Steffie Coolen 2135425
A paper about the effect of lifestyle choices on subjective general health with religion as
moderator – Due date: December 11, 2024
Abstract
This research looks at how lifestyle choices affect the subjective general health of individuals
in Europe. And how this relationship is affected by different religions, such as Christianity or
Islam. This is an important topic because the health of individuals in Europe has worsened in
the last couple of years. Our lifestyle choices shape our health. Different factors can influence
our lifestyle choices and health. One of these factors is religion. This research chose to zoom
into this factor because there is not much research yet. A positive relationship between healthy
lifestyle choices and good subjective general health is expected. It is expected that different
religions have a positive effect on the relationship between lifestyle choices and subjective
general health. Data from the European Social Survey 2023 round 11 (1.0) was used to test
the hypotheses. There was a small significant effect between lifestyle choices and subjective
general health. And there was no significant effect for the interaction variables, Christian and
Islam. This would mean that the expectation that specific religions have a positive effect on
lifestyle choices and subjective general health is rejected and that more research is needed to
look at the influences of religion.
Keywords: Subjective general health – Lifestyle choices – Religion
,2
Introduction
People’s health in Europe has been worsening in the past couple of years. There has
been a rise in the prevalence of chronic health conditions (Kerai, 2022). In 2019, 67,8% of the
European population over 18 reported sufficient health. Almost 1 in 10 (8,8%) of the
population perceived their health as bad (Eurostat, 2020). Health problems like obesity or
diabetes have been becoming major global health concerns over the past couple of years and
are still increasing (Calvert et al., 2020).
Our health is the product of the lifestyle choices we make in our everyday life. These
choices can be seen in our eating, physical activity, smoking, and drinking behaviors (Ahmed
et al.,2022). According to the World Health Organisation, poor lifestyle choices can be linked
to chronic and acute illnesses and high mortality rates now or in later life (Calvertet al.,2020;
Koulierakis et al., 2022). Factors that influence individuals’ lifestyle choices and health are
age, socioeconomic status, religion, living environments, and education (Ahmed et al., 2022;
Calvert et al., 2020; Koulierakis et al., 2022; Velze et al., 2020). These influences can make a
difference between a life expectancy of 3,3 years and a healthy life expectancy of almost 11
years. And it often concerns one or more chronic conditions (Velze et al., 2020).
Religion can be seen as a factor that influences the relationship between lifestyle
choices and subjective general health. This is because religious systems maintain certain ways
of living to imply their ideals; Muslims are not allowed to drink alcohol or eat carnivorous
animals (like pork) because this is not halal (Ahmed et al., 2022; Sarri et al., 2006), Catholics
are forbidden to eat meat on Fridays, and Orthodox Christians are recommended to fast for
200 days a year where they are forbidden to eat meat, dairy, and olive oil (Sarri et al., 2006).
The different religions can be set apart by their differences in values, norms, and habits
(Ahmed et al., 2022). These values, norms, and habits can influence the consumption of food,
alcohol, and forbidden substances (Sarri et al., 2006). When individuals in this involved
,3
society do not accept this implied lifestyle, they are threatening the values of the system
(Ahmed et al., 2022). This not only influences the lifestyle choices individuals make but also
the health outcomes that these individuals have. The main beliefs in Europe are the Christian
and Islamic faiths (Ahmed et al., 2022), because of this, the research will focus on these
religions.
Lifestyle factors play a crucial role in shaping an individual’s health within our society
(Calvert et al., 2020). Additionally, religion may influence lifestyle behaviors in different
ways. However, there is little understanding of how religion affects health outcomes and our
daily lifestyle choices. This research looks at the relationship between lifestyle choices and
health and investigates the influence of religion. To promote better health outcomes, it is
important to understand these connections and to know why individuals have certain lifestyle
choices (Calvert et al., 2020). When there is more understanding of these behaviors, negative
health outcomes can be minimized by interventions (Calvert et al., 2020; Koulierakis et al.,
2022). This can help to improve interventions for certain nations/countries, governments,
health organizations, and schools. By promoting healthy lifestyle choices, it is hoped that
lifestyle-related diseases will be reduced (Loannou et al., 2012). To let interventions make a
real difference, these should be at an early age because negative behaviors will continue in
later adulthood. This is why adolescence can be seen as an important time to develop and
maintain healthy lifestyle choices (Calvert et al., 2020). If sickness and need for treatment are
less, this can also help reduce the labor shortage and healthcare costs (Velze, 2020).
Therefore, further research in Europe about the influences of lifestyle choices and the relation
between religion is relevant to the well-being of society.
Recent studies have been more focused on the influences of gender factors,
socioeconomic status, living environments, age, and family status on lifestyle choices (Ahmed
et al., 2022; Calvert et al., 2020; Koulierakis et al., 2022; Velze et al., 2020). This research
, 4
will look at the gap between lifestyle and health studies, the specific influences of religion,
and the differences between the faiths. Also, almost all the studies are done in one or a few
countries but not in the continent of Europe; this research will not focus on one specific nation
or country but look at the broader perspective. The advantage of this is that when you look at
multiple countries, there is a chance there are findings generalized across the different
countries rather than specific for one country. This can help understand the differences
between populations in Europe and can be helpful for policy contexts so that you can create
policies for multiple countries rather than only for one country (Banks et al., 2020).
This research will focus on the following research questions:
1. How do lifestyle factors impact the overall subjective general health of people in
Europe?
2. Is the relationship between lifestyle factors and overall health affected by an
individual‘s religious belief in Europe, and if so, in what way?
The next chapter is the theoretical framework for this study. It will talk about what is
known about the topics from the literature, and hypotheses will be formed from this. The
methods section discusses how the data is analyzed and coded. The chapter results will show
the results from the analyses. The last chapter is the conclusion and discussion.
