College 1 Neuropsychology
Exam: 40MC (60%) + 4 open (40%)
Chronological age: measured in units of time (months or years) that have
elapsed since birth
Biological age: where people stand relative to the number of years they
will live (in terms of the body’s organ system and physical appearance)
Functional age: person’s competence in carrying out specific tasks
• The third age: between retirement form work force and start of age-imposed
limitations
o People no longer have the responsibility for the upbringing of their
children, nor are they obliged to participate in the labour force
• The fourth age: cognitive and physical impairments interfering with everyday
functioning
o The number of losses in physical health and social relationships exceed
the number of gains
Psychological age: refers to how well a person adapts to changing
conditions
Social age: views held by most members of a society about what
individuals in a particular chronological age group should do and how
they should behave
2 models of ageing
1. The selective optimization with compensation model of ageing
Individuals engage in adaptation throughout their lives. They are
capable of learning and changing and calling upon extra (reserve) capacity
that they might not need to use under ordinary circumstances.
Selection = a strategy of concentrating efforts on domains in which effective functioning
is most likely to remain high
,Optimization = a strategy of focusing on behaviors that maximize not only the quantity
but also the quality of life
Compensation = refers to substituting new strategies when losses occur
2. The ecological model of ageing
The interaction between a person competence and environment results in some
level of adaptation (measured in a person’s emotional well-being)
A person with high competence will adapt positively to a wider range of
environmental press than a person with low competence
Competence = physical, sensory, cognitive and social capabilities
Biology of Ageing
Aging in the absence of any disease is rare…
Morbidity: refers to illness and disease
Mortality: refers to death
Morbidity does not necessarily result in mortality
Health =
, • The freedom of disease
• A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease
Life span: the maximum that member of a species can live (max +- 120 years)
Life expectancy: the average number of years that individuals in a particular birth cohort
can be expected to live.
2 theories
1. Biological aging occurs within the organism regardless of outside forces
2. Biological aging is influenced by our environment and daily habits and the way
we cope with life’s challenges
Primary aging:
• Unavoidable biological process that affects all members of a species (universal)
• Is set in motion early in life and progress gradually over time
• Is intrinsic: is determined by factors within the organism
Secondary aging
• Experienced by most, but not necessarily all members of a species
• Resulting from hostile environmental influences fe. Smoking
Programmed theories: consider aging to be under the control of a genetically based
blueprint – related to primary aging
• Time Clock Theory:
o Cells form human infant doubles 50 times, whereas cells from a mouse
doubled 10-15 times
o Life span is controlled by genetically determined time clock at cellular
level
• Immune Theory:
o Immune system is programmed to maintain its efficiency for a certain
amount of time, after which it starts to decline
§ Inferior antibodies: mistakenly attack and destroy normal cells
• Evolutionary Theory:
o Members of species are genetically programmed to bear and rear their
young. Once they reproduce and raise their offspring to independence,
they have fulfilled their service in perpetuating the species.
§ Fruit flies forced to delay reproduction lived longer than fruit flies
that reproduced early
Stochastic Theories: Focus on random damage to our vital systems that occurs with
the process of aging – related to secondary aging
• Error theory:
o Errors occur at cellular level resulting in the production of faulty
molecules.
o Cells have a repair mechanism, but may not keep up with damage created
by faulty molecules
, • Wear and tear theory:
o We begin living with a fixed amount of physiological energy. If we expend it
quickly, aging begins early and proceeds rapidly.
• Stress theory:
o Stress triggers physiological activation that results in secretion of stress-
related hormones.
§ Young organism: stress system quickly returns to normal levels
§ Older organism: stress system needs more time to return to
normal levels
o Stress-related damage to the biological system can accelerate the aging
process.
Aging is the result of an interaction between both nature and nurture
Aging is accompanied by a lot of physical changes
• Skin and hair
• Musculoskeletal system
• Cardiovascular system
Normative aging: what is considered a usual, normal, or average outcome
Successful aging: what is considered an ideal rather than average outcome
• Is a combination of 3 elements: absence of disease, maintenance of physical
and cognitive abilities, and engagement in productive activities
Positive aging: the ability to find happiness and well-being even in the face of physical
and/or psychological challenges
Active aging: the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and
security to enhance quality of life as people age
2 hypotheses about the relation between health problems
• Compression of morbidity
o States that the most severe health problems are concentrated in the last
years of life
o “If we live longer, then we experience more years in good health”
• Expansion of morbidity:
o States that the number of life years in poor health increases with an
increasing lifespan
o “If we live longer, then we also spend more years battling health
problems”
Exam: 40MC (60%) + 4 open (40%)
Chronological age: measured in units of time (months or years) that have
elapsed since birth
Biological age: where people stand relative to the number of years they
will live (in terms of the body’s organ system and physical appearance)
Functional age: person’s competence in carrying out specific tasks
• The third age: between retirement form work force and start of age-imposed
limitations
o People no longer have the responsibility for the upbringing of their
children, nor are they obliged to participate in the labour force
• The fourth age: cognitive and physical impairments interfering with everyday
functioning
o The number of losses in physical health and social relationships exceed
the number of gains
Psychological age: refers to how well a person adapts to changing
conditions
Social age: views held by most members of a society about what
individuals in a particular chronological age group should do and how
they should behave
2 models of ageing
1. The selective optimization with compensation model of ageing
Individuals engage in adaptation throughout their lives. They are
capable of learning and changing and calling upon extra (reserve) capacity
that they might not need to use under ordinary circumstances.
Selection = a strategy of concentrating efforts on domains in which effective functioning
is most likely to remain high
,Optimization = a strategy of focusing on behaviors that maximize not only the quantity
but also the quality of life
Compensation = refers to substituting new strategies when losses occur
2. The ecological model of ageing
The interaction between a person competence and environment results in some
level of adaptation (measured in a person’s emotional well-being)
A person with high competence will adapt positively to a wider range of
environmental press than a person with low competence
Competence = physical, sensory, cognitive and social capabilities
Biology of Ageing
Aging in the absence of any disease is rare…
Morbidity: refers to illness and disease
Mortality: refers to death
Morbidity does not necessarily result in mortality
Health =
, • The freedom of disease
• A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease
Life span: the maximum that member of a species can live (max +- 120 years)
Life expectancy: the average number of years that individuals in a particular birth cohort
can be expected to live.
2 theories
1. Biological aging occurs within the organism regardless of outside forces
2. Biological aging is influenced by our environment and daily habits and the way
we cope with life’s challenges
Primary aging:
• Unavoidable biological process that affects all members of a species (universal)
• Is set in motion early in life and progress gradually over time
• Is intrinsic: is determined by factors within the organism
Secondary aging
• Experienced by most, but not necessarily all members of a species
• Resulting from hostile environmental influences fe. Smoking
Programmed theories: consider aging to be under the control of a genetically based
blueprint – related to primary aging
• Time Clock Theory:
o Cells form human infant doubles 50 times, whereas cells from a mouse
doubled 10-15 times
o Life span is controlled by genetically determined time clock at cellular
level
• Immune Theory:
o Immune system is programmed to maintain its efficiency for a certain
amount of time, after which it starts to decline
§ Inferior antibodies: mistakenly attack and destroy normal cells
• Evolutionary Theory:
o Members of species are genetically programmed to bear and rear their
young. Once they reproduce and raise their offspring to independence,
they have fulfilled their service in perpetuating the species.
§ Fruit flies forced to delay reproduction lived longer than fruit flies
that reproduced early
Stochastic Theories: Focus on random damage to our vital systems that occurs with
the process of aging – related to secondary aging
• Error theory:
o Errors occur at cellular level resulting in the production of faulty
molecules.
o Cells have a repair mechanism, but may not keep up with damage created
by faulty molecules
, • Wear and tear theory:
o We begin living with a fixed amount of physiological energy. If we expend it
quickly, aging begins early and proceeds rapidly.
• Stress theory:
o Stress triggers physiological activation that results in secretion of stress-
related hormones.
§ Young organism: stress system quickly returns to normal levels
§ Older organism: stress system needs more time to return to
normal levels
o Stress-related damage to the biological system can accelerate the aging
process.
Aging is the result of an interaction between both nature and nurture
Aging is accompanied by a lot of physical changes
• Skin and hair
• Musculoskeletal system
• Cardiovascular system
Normative aging: what is considered a usual, normal, or average outcome
Successful aging: what is considered an ideal rather than average outcome
• Is a combination of 3 elements: absence of disease, maintenance of physical
and cognitive abilities, and engagement in productive activities
Positive aging: the ability to find happiness and well-being even in the face of physical
and/or psychological challenges
Active aging: the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and
security to enhance quality of life as people age
2 hypotheses about the relation between health problems
• Compression of morbidity
o States that the most severe health problems are concentrated in the last
years of life
o “If we live longer, then we experience more years in good health”
• Expansion of morbidity:
o States that the number of life years in poor health increases with an
increasing lifespan
o “If we live longer, then we also spend more years battling health
problems”
