NUR 641E Midterm Exam
Study Guide
1.
2. Question: Describe the cellular process of hypertrophy, and provide an example of how
it can affect a specific organ in response to increased workload.
Answer: Hypertrophy is the increase in cell size due to a greater workload, leading to an
enlarged tissue or organ. An example is the hypertrophy of cardiac muscle cells in
response to chronic high blood pressure, causing the heart to work harder and leading to
an increased heart size.
2. Question: Differentiate between left-sided and right-sided heart failure based on the
main symptoms and effects on body systems.
Answer: Left-sided heart failure primarily impacts the lungs, causing symptoms like
shortness of breath, orthopnea, and pulmonary congestion. Right-sided heart failure
affects systemic circulation, leading to peripheral edema, jugular venous distention, and
hepatomegaly due to fluid backup in the venous system.
3. Question: Outline the inflammatory process in asthma, including the role of
inflammatory mediators in causing airway constriction.
Answer: Asthma is characterized by chronic inflammation of the airways, where
exposure to triggers releases mediators like histamines and leukotrienes. These cause
bronchoconstriction, airway edema, and mucus production, leading to obstructed airflow
and respiratory symptoms.
4. Question: Explain the pathophysiological differences between Type 1 and Type 2
diabetes mellitus and the primary treatment approaches for each.
Answer: Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder resulting in the destruction of
insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, requiring insulin therapy. Type 2 diabetes
involves insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency, often managed with lifestyle
changes and oral medications, although insulin may be required in later stages.
,5. Question: List the common symptoms of an ischemic stroke and discuss why timely
treatment is critical.
Answer: Symptoms of ischemic stroke include sudden weakness or numbness on one
side, confusion, speech difficulties, vision problems, and coordination loss. Prompt
treatment, such as thrombolytic therapy, is essential to restore blood flow, limit brain
damage, and improve patient outcomes.
6. Question: Describe how chronic kidney disease (CKD) can lead to anemia and why
erythropoietin therapy may be necessary.
Answer: CKD often causes anemia due to reduced erythropoietin production by the
damaged kidneys. Erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production; without it, patients
develop anemia, presenting with fatigue and weakness. Erythropoietin therapy can
correct this by promoting red blood cell production.
7. Question: Compare Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis regarding affected regions
and typical symptoms.
Answer: Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the GI tract, with inflammation often
involving all layers of the bowel wall, leading to symptoms like abdominal pain and
diarrhea. Ulcerative colitis is confined to the colon and rectum, primarily affecting the
mucosal layer, and is characterized by bloody diarrhea and abdominal discomfort.
8. Question: Explain the action of ACE inhibitors and their role in managing high blood
pressure.
Answer: ACE inhibitors work by inhibiting the enzyme that converts angiotensin I to
angiotensin II, leading to vasodilation and reduced blood pressure. They are commonly
prescribed for hypertension and heart failure management due to their ability to
decrease vascular resistance and reduce cardiac workload.
9. Question: Describe the primary purpose and effects of beta-blockers in cardiovascular
treatment.
Answer: Beta-blockers work by blocking beta-adrenergic receptors, reducing heart rate
and myocardial contractility. This lowers blood pressure, decreases oxygen demand by
the heart, and is particularly useful in treating conditions like hypertension, angina, and
certain arrhythmias.
10. Question: Explain the process of atherosclerosis and how it contributes to coronary
artery disease.
Answer: Atherosclerosis is the buildup of plaque, including cholesterol, fats, and cellular
waste, within arterial walls. Over time, this narrows arteries, reducing blood flow and
, potentially leading to coronary artery disease (CAD). CAD occurs when plaque buildup
restricts blood supply to the heart muscle, raising the risk of myocardial infarction.
11. Question: Identify the hallmark symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD) and explain the physiological changes that lead to these symptoms.
Answer: Common COPD symptoms include shortness of breath, chronic cough, and
mucus production. These arise from irreversible airflow limitation due to alveolar
damage, loss of lung elasticity, and bronchial inflammation, which makes breathing
difficult and less efficient.
12. Question: Discuss the role of insulin in glucose metabolism and what occurs when
insulin is deficient.
Answer: Insulin is a hormone that facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells, allowing it to
be used for energy or stored as glycogen. Without adequate insulin, as in Type 1
diabetes, glucose cannot enter cells efficiently, leading to elevated blood glucose levels
and potential metabolic complications like diabetic ketoacidosis.
13. Question: Describe how thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and identify the
symptoms associated with hypothyroidism.
Answer: Thyroid hormones, mainly T3 and T4, regulate metabolism by influencing the
rate of cellular energy use. Hypothyroidism, or low thyroid hormone levels, leads to
symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and bradycardia, as metabolic
processes slow down.
14. Question: Explain the significance of troponin levels in diagnosing myocardial infarction.
Answer: Troponin is a cardiac biomarker released into the bloodstream when heart
muscle cells are damaged, as in a myocardial infarction. Elevated troponin levels are
highly specific for cardiac injury, making it a critical diagnostic tool for confirming heart
attacks.
15. Question: Describe the pathophysiological mechanisms that lead to hypertension and
its potential complications if untreated.
Answer: Hypertension often results from increased vascular resistance due to factors
like atherosclerosis, excess sodium, and stress. Over time, untreated hypertension can
lead to complications like heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, and vision loss due to
damage to blood vessels and organs.
Study Guide
1.
2. Question: Describe the cellular process of hypertrophy, and provide an example of how
it can affect a specific organ in response to increased workload.
Answer: Hypertrophy is the increase in cell size due to a greater workload, leading to an
enlarged tissue or organ. An example is the hypertrophy of cardiac muscle cells in
response to chronic high blood pressure, causing the heart to work harder and leading to
an increased heart size.
2. Question: Differentiate between left-sided and right-sided heart failure based on the
main symptoms and effects on body systems.
Answer: Left-sided heart failure primarily impacts the lungs, causing symptoms like
shortness of breath, orthopnea, and pulmonary congestion. Right-sided heart failure
affects systemic circulation, leading to peripheral edema, jugular venous distention, and
hepatomegaly due to fluid backup in the venous system.
3. Question: Outline the inflammatory process in asthma, including the role of
inflammatory mediators in causing airway constriction.
Answer: Asthma is characterized by chronic inflammation of the airways, where
exposure to triggers releases mediators like histamines and leukotrienes. These cause
bronchoconstriction, airway edema, and mucus production, leading to obstructed airflow
and respiratory symptoms.
4. Question: Explain the pathophysiological differences between Type 1 and Type 2
diabetes mellitus and the primary treatment approaches for each.
Answer: Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder resulting in the destruction of
insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, requiring insulin therapy. Type 2 diabetes
involves insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency, often managed with lifestyle
changes and oral medications, although insulin may be required in later stages.
,5. Question: List the common symptoms of an ischemic stroke and discuss why timely
treatment is critical.
Answer: Symptoms of ischemic stroke include sudden weakness or numbness on one
side, confusion, speech difficulties, vision problems, and coordination loss. Prompt
treatment, such as thrombolytic therapy, is essential to restore blood flow, limit brain
damage, and improve patient outcomes.
6. Question: Describe how chronic kidney disease (CKD) can lead to anemia and why
erythropoietin therapy may be necessary.
Answer: CKD often causes anemia due to reduced erythropoietin production by the
damaged kidneys. Erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production; without it, patients
develop anemia, presenting with fatigue and weakness. Erythropoietin therapy can
correct this by promoting red blood cell production.
7. Question: Compare Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis regarding affected regions
and typical symptoms.
Answer: Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the GI tract, with inflammation often
involving all layers of the bowel wall, leading to symptoms like abdominal pain and
diarrhea. Ulcerative colitis is confined to the colon and rectum, primarily affecting the
mucosal layer, and is characterized by bloody diarrhea and abdominal discomfort.
8. Question: Explain the action of ACE inhibitors and their role in managing high blood
pressure.
Answer: ACE inhibitors work by inhibiting the enzyme that converts angiotensin I to
angiotensin II, leading to vasodilation and reduced blood pressure. They are commonly
prescribed for hypertension and heart failure management due to their ability to
decrease vascular resistance and reduce cardiac workload.
9. Question: Describe the primary purpose and effects of beta-blockers in cardiovascular
treatment.
Answer: Beta-blockers work by blocking beta-adrenergic receptors, reducing heart rate
and myocardial contractility. This lowers blood pressure, decreases oxygen demand by
the heart, and is particularly useful in treating conditions like hypertension, angina, and
certain arrhythmias.
10. Question: Explain the process of atherosclerosis and how it contributes to coronary
artery disease.
Answer: Atherosclerosis is the buildup of plaque, including cholesterol, fats, and cellular
waste, within arterial walls. Over time, this narrows arteries, reducing blood flow and
, potentially leading to coronary artery disease (CAD). CAD occurs when plaque buildup
restricts blood supply to the heart muscle, raising the risk of myocardial infarction.
11. Question: Identify the hallmark symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD) and explain the physiological changes that lead to these symptoms.
Answer: Common COPD symptoms include shortness of breath, chronic cough, and
mucus production. These arise from irreversible airflow limitation due to alveolar
damage, loss of lung elasticity, and bronchial inflammation, which makes breathing
difficult and less efficient.
12. Question: Discuss the role of insulin in glucose metabolism and what occurs when
insulin is deficient.
Answer: Insulin is a hormone that facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells, allowing it to
be used for energy or stored as glycogen. Without adequate insulin, as in Type 1
diabetes, glucose cannot enter cells efficiently, leading to elevated blood glucose levels
and potential metabolic complications like diabetic ketoacidosis.
13. Question: Describe how thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and identify the
symptoms associated with hypothyroidism.
Answer: Thyroid hormones, mainly T3 and T4, regulate metabolism by influencing the
rate of cellular energy use. Hypothyroidism, or low thyroid hormone levels, leads to
symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and bradycardia, as metabolic
processes slow down.
14. Question: Explain the significance of troponin levels in diagnosing myocardial infarction.
Answer: Troponin is a cardiac biomarker released into the bloodstream when heart
muscle cells are damaged, as in a myocardial infarction. Elevated troponin levels are
highly specific for cardiac injury, making it a critical diagnostic tool for confirming heart
attacks.
15. Question: Describe the pathophysiological mechanisms that lead to hypertension and
its potential complications if untreated.
Answer: Hypertension often results from increased vascular resistance due to factors
like atherosclerosis, excess sodium, and stress. Over time, untreated hypertension can
lead to complications like heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, and vision loss due to
damage to blood vessels and organs.
