Introduction to Psychology
Test (4 Nov. 24 – 08:45-10:45), covering the theory of Ch. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13 and
15.
Table of contents
Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology ............................................................................ 8
1.1 In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James....................................................... 8
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism ................ 8
1.3 Modern Perspectives ........................................................................................... 9
1.4 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization ...................................... 12
1.5 Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking ............................................................ 12
1.6 The Scientific Approach...................................................................................... 12
1.7 Descriptive Methods .......................................................................................... 13
1.8 Correlations: Finding Relationships..................................................................... 14
1.9 The Experiment.................................................................................................. 14
1.10 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects ............................................... 15
1.11 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People .................................................. 15
1.12 Animal Research.............................................................................................. 16
1.13 Critical Thinking and Social Media ..................................................................... 16
Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception ........................................................................... 17
3.1 Transduction ..................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Sensory Thresholds ........................................................................................... 17
3.3 Habituation and Sensory Adaptation ................................................................... 18
3.4 Light and the Eye................................................................................................ 18
3.5 The Visual Pathway ............................................................................................ 19
3.6 Perception of Color ............................................................................................ 20
3.7 Sound Waves and the Ear ................................................................................... 21
, 3.8 Perceiving Pitch ................................................................................................. 21
3.9 Types of Hearing Impairments ............................................................................ 22
3.10 Gustation: How We Taste the World .................................................................. 22
3.11 The Sense of Scents: Olfaction.......................................................................... 23
3.12 Somesthetic Senses ........................................................................................ 23
3.13 Body Movement and Position ............................................................................ 24
3.14 How We Organize Our Perceptions .................................................................... 25
3.15 Depth Perception ............................................................................................. 26
3.17 Using Your Senses to Be More Mindful ............................................................... 29
Chapter 5: Learning .................................................................................................... 30
5.1 Definition of Learning ......................................................................................... 30
5.2 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs ............................................................................ 30
5.3 Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior .............................................. 32
5.4 The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner ......................................................... 33
5.5 The Concept of Reinforcement ........................................................................... 33
5.6 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit Is So Seductive ............. 34
5.7 The Role of Punishments in Operant Conditioning ................................................ 35
5.8 Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning ............................................................... 36
5.9 Applications of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification ............. 36
5.10 Tolman's Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning ................................................... 37
5.11 Köhler's Smart Chimp: Insight Learning ............................................................. 38
5.12 Seligman's Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness ........................................... 38
5.13 Bandura and the Bobo Doll ............................................................................... 38
5.14 The Four Elements of Observational Learning ..................................................... 39
5.15 Conditioning in the real world ........................................................................... 39
Chapter 6: Memory ..................................................................................................... 40
6.1 Three Processes of Memory ................................................................................ 40
6.2 Models of Memory ............................................................................................. 40
6.3 Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Takes? ............................................ 41
, 6.4 Short-Term Memory ........................................................................................... 42
6.5 Long-Term Memory ............................................................................................ 43
6.6 Retrieval Cues ................................................................................................... 45
6.7 Recall and Recognition....................................................................................... 45
6.8 Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories ........................................................... 46
6.9 The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are
Memories? ............................................................................................................. 46
6.10 Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve ................................................................ 47
6.11 Reasons We Forget .......................................................................................... 47
6.12 The Biological Bases of Memory ........................................................................ 48
6.13 When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia ............................................................... 49
6.14 Using Elaborative Rehearsal to Make Memories More Memorable........................ 50
Chapter 7: Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language ........................................... 51
7.1 Mental Imagery .................................................................................................. 51
7.2 Concepts and Prototypes ................................................................................... 51
7.3 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies ................................................. 52
7.4 Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making ........................................... 53
7.5 Creativity .......................................................................................................... 53
7.6 Theories of Intelligence ...................................................................................... 53
7.7 Measuring Intelligence ....................................................................................... 56
7.8 Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test? ............................................................. 56
7.9 Individual Differences in Intelligence ................................................................... 58
7.10 The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence ................................................ 59
7.11 The Levels of Language Analysis........................................................................ 60
7.12 Development of Language ................................................................................ 60
7.13 The Relationship between Language and Thought .............................................. 61
7.14 Animal Studies in Language .............................................................................. 61
7.15 Recognizing Cognitive Biases ............................................................................ 62
Chapter 8: Development Across the Life Span .............................................................. 63
, 8.1 Research Designs .............................................................................................. 63
8.2 Nature and Nurture ............................................................................................ 63
8.3 The Basic Building Blocks of Development ........................................................... 64
8.4 Fertilization (Prenatal) ........................................................................................ 65
8.5 Three Stages of Development (Prenatal) .............................................................. 66
8.6 Physical Development (Infancy and Childhood) ................................................... 68
8.7 Cognitive Development (Infancy and Childhood) .................................................. 69
8.8 Psychosocial Development (Infancy and Childhood) ............................................ 71
8.9 Physical Development (Adolescence) ................................................................. 73
8.10 Cognitive Development (Adolescence) .............................................................. 74
8.11 Psychosocial Development (Adolescence) ........................................................ 75
8.12 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It (Adulthood and Aging) ............................ 75
8.13 Cognitive Development (Adulthood and Aging) ................................................... 76
8.14 psychosocial Development (Adulthood and Aging) ............................................. 76
8.15 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging (Adulthood and Aging) .................... 77
8.16 Stages of Death and Dying (Adulthood and Aging) ............................................... 78
8.17 Death and Dying in Other Cultures (Adulthood and Aging) ................................... 78
8.18 Not an Adolescent, but Not Yet an Adult ............................................................ 79
Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion.............................................................................. 80
9.1 Defining Motivation ............................................................................................ 80
9.2 Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation .................................................... 80
9.3 Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Needs .................................... 81
9.4 Arousal and Incentive Approaches ...................................................................... 82
9.5 Humanistic Approaches ..................................................................................... 83
9.6 Psychological and Social Components of Hunger ................................................ 84
9.7 Obesity ............................................................................................................. 85
9.8 The Three Elements of Emotion ........................................................................... 86
9.9 Early Theories of Emotion ................................................................................... 87
9.10 Cognitive Theories of Emotion ........................................................................... 89
Test (4 Nov. 24 – 08:45-10:45), covering the theory of Ch. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13 and
15.
Table of contents
Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology ............................................................................ 8
1.1 In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James....................................................... 8
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism ................ 8
1.3 Modern Perspectives ........................................................................................... 9
1.4 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization ...................................... 12
1.5 Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking ............................................................ 12
1.6 The Scientific Approach...................................................................................... 12
1.7 Descriptive Methods .......................................................................................... 13
1.8 Correlations: Finding Relationships..................................................................... 14
1.9 The Experiment.................................................................................................. 14
1.10 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects ............................................... 15
1.11 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People .................................................. 15
1.12 Animal Research.............................................................................................. 16
1.13 Critical Thinking and Social Media ..................................................................... 16
Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception ........................................................................... 17
3.1 Transduction ..................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Sensory Thresholds ........................................................................................... 17
3.3 Habituation and Sensory Adaptation ................................................................... 18
3.4 Light and the Eye................................................................................................ 18
3.5 The Visual Pathway ............................................................................................ 19
3.6 Perception of Color ............................................................................................ 20
3.7 Sound Waves and the Ear ................................................................................... 21
, 3.8 Perceiving Pitch ................................................................................................. 21
3.9 Types of Hearing Impairments ............................................................................ 22
3.10 Gustation: How We Taste the World .................................................................. 22
3.11 The Sense of Scents: Olfaction.......................................................................... 23
3.12 Somesthetic Senses ........................................................................................ 23
3.13 Body Movement and Position ............................................................................ 24
3.14 How We Organize Our Perceptions .................................................................... 25
3.15 Depth Perception ............................................................................................. 26
3.17 Using Your Senses to Be More Mindful ............................................................... 29
Chapter 5: Learning .................................................................................................... 30
5.1 Definition of Learning ......................................................................................... 30
5.2 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs ............................................................................ 30
5.3 Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior .............................................. 32
5.4 The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner ......................................................... 33
5.5 The Concept of Reinforcement ........................................................................... 33
5.6 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit Is So Seductive ............. 34
5.7 The Role of Punishments in Operant Conditioning ................................................ 35
5.8 Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning ............................................................... 36
5.9 Applications of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification ............. 36
5.10 Tolman's Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning ................................................... 37
5.11 Köhler's Smart Chimp: Insight Learning ............................................................. 38
5.12 Seligman's Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness ........................................... 38
5.13 Bandura and the Bobo Doll ............................................................................... 38
5.14 The Four Elements of Observational Learning ..................................................... 39
5.15 Conditioning in the real world ........................................................................... 39
Chapter 6: Memory ..................................................................................................... 40
6.1 Three Processes of Memory ................................................................................ 40
6.2 Models of Memory ............................................................................................. 40
6.3 Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Takes? ............................................ 41
, 6.4 Short-Term Memory ........................................................................................... 42
6.5 Long-Term Memory ............................................................................................ 43
6.6 Retrieval Cues ................................................................................................... 45
6.7 Recall and Recognition....................................................................................... 45
6.8 Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories ........................................................... 46
6.9 The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are
Memories? ............................................................................................................. 46
6.10 Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve ................................................................ 47
6.11 Reasons We Forget .......................................................................................... 47
6.12 The Biological Bases of Memory ........................................................................ 48
6.13 When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia ............................................................... 49
6.14 Using Elaborative Rehearsal to Make Memories More Memorable........................ 50
Chapter 7: Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language ........................................... 51
7.1 Mental Imagery .................................................................................................. 51
7.2 Concepts and Prototypes ................................................................................... 51
7.3 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies ................................................. 52
7.4 Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making ........................................... 53
7.5 Creativity .......................................................................................................... 53
7.6 Theories of Intelligence ...................................................................................... 53
7.7 Measuring Intelligence ....................................................................................... 56
7.8 Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test? ............................................................. 56
7.9 Individual Differences in Intelligence ................................................................... 58
7.10 The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence ................................................ 59
7.11 The Levels of Language Analysis........................................................................ 60
7.12 Development of Language ................................................................................ 60
7.13 The Relationship between Language and Thought .............................................. 61
7.14 Animal Studies in Language .............................................................................. 61
7.15 Recognizing Cognitive Biases ............................................................................ 62
Chapter 8: Development Across the Life Span .............................................................. 63
, 8.1 Research Designs .............................................................................................. 63
8.2 Nature and Nurture ............................................................................................ 63
8.3 The Basic Building Blocks of Development ........................................................... 64
8.4 Fertilization (Prenatal) ........................................................................................ 65
8.5 Three Stages of Development (Prenatal) .............................................................. 66
8.6 Physical Development (Infancy and Childhood) ................................................... 68
8.7 Cognitive Development (Infancy and Childhood) .................................................. 69
8.8 Psychosocial Development (Infancy and Childhood) ............................................ 71
8.9 Physical Development (Adolescence) ................................................................. 73
8.10 Cognitive Development (Adolescence) .............................................................. 74
8.11 Psychosocial Development (Adolescence) ........................................................ 75
8.12 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It (Adulthood and Aging) ............................ 75
8.13 Cognitive Development (Adulthood and Aging) ................................................... 76
8.14 psychosocial Development (Adulthood and Aging) ............................................. 76
8.15 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging (Adulthood and Aging) .................... 77
8.16 Stages of Death and Dying (Adulthood and Aging) ............................................... 78
8.17 Death and Dying in Other Cultures (Adulthood and Aging) ................................... 78
8.18 Not an Adolescent, but Not Yet an Adult ............................................................ 79
Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion.............................................................................. 80
9.1 Defining Motivation ............................................................................................ 80
9.2 Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation .................................................... 80
9.3 Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Needs .................................... 81
9.4 Arousal and Incentive Approaches ...................................................................... 82
9.5 Humanistic Approaches ..................................................................................... 83
9.6 Psychological and Social Components of Hunger ................................................ 84
9.7 Obesity ............................................................................................................. 85
9.8 The Three Elements of Emotion ........................................................................... 86
9.9 Early Theories of Emotion ................................................................................... 87
9.10 Cognitive Theories of Emotion ........................................................................... 89
