Predicting Volunteering Behavior: Influences of Social
Networks and Organizations, Attitudes toward Society and
Observations of Helping Behavior
Teresa Preston Becsi, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
Siva K. Balasubramanian, Illinois Institute of Technology
Volunteering behavior for non-profit organizations is quite predicting volunteering. Much of the research also does not
relevant to marketers as volunteers provide a substantial resource account for the moderating and mediating roles among these
for these organizations in carrying out their missions of service. factors. The contribution of our study is to develop a theoretical
We develop an initial theoretical model of volunteering behavior framework of volunteering behavior that tests the presence and
based upon the literature that test the influences of participation degree of influence from participation of social organizations and
in social networks and religious organizations, personal attitudes networks, psychological factors pertaining to attitudes toward
toward social responsibility, and childhood observation of helping society and volunteering, and earlier exposure to observation of
behavior. Initial results of our model support that social behavior helping behaviors. Our research on volunteering behavior
and participation in social networks, along with participation in contributes to the domain of marketing for non-profit
religious organizations, directly influence volunteering behavior organizations while also developing theory for marketing strategy
more than personal attitudes regarding volunteering. toward non-profit organizations. Research on volunteering
behavior also enhances Marketing’s contributions to other social
sciences while fulfilling a responsibility to society.
Introduction We also test the conceptual framework with a structural
Volunteering time and effort to non-profit organizations and
equation model of analysis, using data from a national survey from
charitable causes is a special contribution by an individual that is
Independent Sector (see Independent Sector’s web site at
invaluable to society. Many non-profit organizations rely on
http://www.independentsector.org). Using self-reported data from
volunteers to carry out their organizational missions of service and
this annual survey across 4,000 U.S. households, we employ
to generate fundraising. Volunteers provide services estimated at
measured variables to develop latent factors for our model.
more than $272 billion annually (Reed II, Aquino and Levy 2007)
while approximately 44% of adults in the U.S. volunteer in some
capacity (Independent Sector 2001). Moreover, as the number of Conceptual Framework
non-profit organizations in the United States has increased, they Volunteering Behavior
face the increasing challenge of recruiting volunteers to provide a Individuals volunteer their time to provide mental and
sufficient amount of human resources. Consequently, in physical effort toward organized charitable causes that benefit
developing marketing strategies to attract and recruit individuals others in need. Volunteerism is both a type of charitable donation
to volunteer, non-profit marketers must identify those motivational and a special form of consumption (Wilson & Musick 1997).
factors which best predict volunteering behavior. While individuals provide work through their time in performing
We develop a theoretical model of volunteering that skills or labor for organizations, the behavior also provides the
integrates both social and psychological factors which influence potential to attain both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic
volunteering behavior as supported by the literature across social rewards can include recognition and other social sanctions.
sciences and Marketing. Identifying those factors which are most Intrinsic rewards can include the psychological benefits associated
influential in motivating volunteering provides practical value to with helping others in need, fulfilling a perceived social
marketing managers in developing promotional strategies to responsibility derived from personal values, and meeting the
recruit volunteers. Our research also will contribute to a standards of one’s own morality.
theoretical framework for the marketing discipline. Previous research supports that those intrinsic factors
Much of the literature in the social sciences focuses on including personal ideals about social responsibility and attitudes
predicting volunteering behavior with underlying theories of toward volunteering may more directly influence attitudes and
resources availability. Other developments use demographic behavior toward volunteering than do socio-economic factors
attributes and socio-economic factors to best explain and predict (Wilson & Musik, 1997; Wilson & Janoski, 1995; Eckstein,
volunteering. While socioeconomic attributes may predict 2001). Additionally, the literature supports that participation in
volunteering behavior, they do not necessarily explain why people social networks and religious organizations can also explain and
choose to provide their human capital to charity. Isolated studies predict volunteering behavior (Eckstein, 2001; Fisher &
in Marketing and other social disciplines estimate the influence of Ackerman 1998). However, findings across the literature often
one or more social or psychological variables upon volunteering support the influence of either social or attitudinal factors upon
behavior. However, very few studies provide any integrative volunteering in the absence of one another. Consequently,
model of volunteering behavior that simultaneously estimates the conclusions may be drawn without regard for the degree to which
presence and degree of these different types of factors in
173
, one type of factor may influence volunteering behavior more than someone else, during the subject’s youth, will positively affect
another type, or the degree to which one factor may moderate or favorable attitudes toward volunteering.
mediate the influence of another in motivating volunteering Frequency of Social Activities within Networks
behavior. Moreover, previous studies generally do not estimate Prior research supports that the decision to volunteer is based
the role of attitudes toward volunteering in mediating or on one’s involvement with social activities. Groups, both formal
moderating the influence of social or other psychological factors. and informal, establish norms of approved attitudes and behavior.
The existing literature, found primarily in social sciences, Groups regulate the behavior of their members based on those
supports that volunteering behavior is predicted by 1) attitudes norms. Social approval from a group is one of the expectations of
toward the behavior, 2) previous exposure to modeling of helping adhering to group norms (Fisher and Ackerman, 1998). Social
behavior, 3) existing personal ideals toward social responsibility networks can substantially influence one’s decision to volunteer.
and volunteering, and 4) affiliation and participation in social In fact, the majority of volunteers do so in response to a request
organizations and networks. We briefly describe each of the from someone within a formal or informal social network. Where
constructs in our model. For details of the measured variables, the norm is to volunteer, social networks can substantially
please see Appendix 1. influence one’s decision to volunteer. The more that an individual
is involved socially, the more that opportunities for volunteering
Attitudes Toward Volunteering Behavior will occur, and the more likely that he or she will be asked to
Attitudes toward volunteering and the benefits to society volunteer (Eckstein, 2001). Frequency of social activities is
influence the individual’s decision to act. Analogous to consumer expected to positively influence volunteering behavior.
behavior is that the subject’s favorable attitudes toward a product, H4: Frequency of social activities, both with members of informal
service, or experience eventually affect the decision purchase. social networks and organized social networks, will positively
The indicators for this factor measure the subject’s attitude toward influence the subject’s likelihood to volunteer.
the importance of different aspects of volunteerism or toward
making the decision to volunteer (Please see Table 1 for individual Religiosity
measured variables). The literature strongly supports that religiosity directly
H1: Favorable attitudes that volunteering benefits society, and to affects an individual’s disposition toward volunteering, with
one’s self, positively influence the subject’s volunteering behavior. marked differences between religious and non-religious people
(Wilson & Musick 1997; Wilson and Janoski 1995). The decision
Personal Ideals of Social Responsibility and to volunteer also is often explained by religious reasons (Wuthnow
Volunteering 1991; Eckstein 2001). Religious organizations are highly likely to
Ideals have a dominant role in thinking and attitudes about provide information about volunteering opportunities and initiate
volunteerism (Broadbridge and Horne 1996). Personal motives recruitment (Eckstein 2001; Hodgkinson & Wuthnow 1990).
constitute the action, contribute to attitude formation and help to Given the morals and values on which most religious
shape behavior (Fischer and Schaffer 1993). This construct organizations are based, we can expect that membership and
includes those ideals and personal motivators that reflect a social participation would be associated with volunteering (Batson &
conscience toward helping those who are less fortunate, Flory 1990).
contributing back to society, or improving the moral condition of The collective nature of membership and participation in
society through one’s own actions. organized worship also lends support to the social influence of
H2: The degree of importance in which personal motivators have religiosity upon volunteering. Presence and degree of religiosity,
in volunteering is positively associated with favorable attitudes as characterized by participative behavior, is expected to
toward volunteering. positively affect perceived importance of volunteering benefits,
resulting in favorable attitudes toward volunteering.
Previous Exposure in Youth to Modeling Behavior H5a: Presence and degree of religiosity, as characterized by
In describing the construct of modeling of helping, two points membership affiliation and participation behavior, is positively
should be noted on helping behavior and our conceptual associated with favorable attitudes toward volunteering.
framework. First, while much of the literature has examined the H5b: Presence and degree of religiosity, as characterized by
effects of helping behavior and volunteering upon each other, membership affiliation and participation behavior, is positively
research does not support a direct relationship where individual associated with volunteering behavior.
helping behavior leads to formal volunteering (Wilson and Musick
1997). Second, the literature does provide evidence that Study Design and Proposed Model
witnessing helping behavior as modeled by others, particularly Based upon the hypotheses developed in our conceptual
parents, influences attitudes regarding helping and volunteering. framework, we propose the structural model displayed in Figure 1.
Modeling of helping behavior in youth has significant direct The proposed model includes six latent factors with loading, 21
effects upon volunteering behavior, role identity and intent to measured variables and a summation index variable (See Figure 1
volunteer in the future (Lee et al. 1997). The primary purpose of for structural Model. See Appendix 1 for variable description and
including measurement of recall from these experiences is to factor loadings).
evaluate their effects on subjects’ attitudes toward volunteering,
and subsequently, their own volunteer behavior. Sample
H3: Previous exposure to modeling of helping behaviors, either Data used for analysis was provided from the Independent
by witnessing role models help others, or by receiving help from Sector’s study on Giving and Volunteering in the United States
(1999). Data were collected through face-to-face interviews in
174
Networks and Organizations, Attitudes toward Society and
Observations of Helping Behavior
Teresa Preston Becsi, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
Siva K. Balasubramanian, Illinois Institute of Technology
Volunteering behavior for non-profit organizations is quite predicting volunteering. Much of the research also does not
relevant to marketers as volunteers provide a substantial resource account for the moderating and mediating roles among these
for these organizations in carrying out their missions of service. factors. The contribution of our study is to develop a theoretical
We develop an initial theoretical model of volunteering behavior framework of volunteering behavior that tests the presence and
based upon the literature that test the influences of participation degree of influence from participation of social organizations and
in social networks and religious organizations, personal attitudes networks, psychological factors pertaining to attitudes toward
toward social responsibility, and childhood observation of helping society and volunteering, and earlier exposure to observation of
behavior. Initial results of our model support that social behavior helping behaviors. Our research on volunteering behavior
and participation in social networks, along with participation in contributes to the domain of marketing for non-profit
religious organizations, directly influence volunteering behavior organizations while also developing theory for marketing strategy
more than personal attitudes regarding volunteering. toward non-profit organizations. Research on volunteering
behavior also enhances Marketing’s contributions to other social
sciences while fulfilling a responsibility to society.
Introduction We also test the conceptual framework with a structural
Volunteering time and effort to non-profit organizations and
equation model of analysis, using data from a national survey from
charitable causes is a special contribution by an individual that is
Independent Sector (see Independent Sector’s web site at
invaluable to society. Many non-profit organizations rely on
http://www.independentsector.org). Using self-reported data from
volunteers to carry out their organizational missions of service and
this annual survey across 4,000 U.S. households, we employ
to generate fundraising. Volunteers provide services estimated at
measured variables to develop latent factors for our model.
more than $272 billion annually (Reed II, Aquino and Levy 2007)
while approximately 44% of adults in the U.S. volunteer in some
capacity (Independent Sector 2001). Moreover, as the number of Conceptual Framework
non-profit organizations in the United States has increased, they Volunteering Behavior
face the increasing challenge of recruiting volunteers to provide a Individuals volunteer their time to provide mental and
sufficient amount of human resources. Consequently, in physical effort toward organized charitable causes that benefit
developing marketing strategies to attract and recruit individuals others in need. Volunteerism is both a type of charitable donation
to volunteer, non-profit marketers must identify those motivational and a special form of consumption (Wilson & Musick 1997).
factors which best predict volunteering behavior. While individuals provide work through their time in performing
We develop a theoretical model of volunteering that skills or labor for organizations, the behavior also provides the
integrates both social and psychological factors which influence potential to attain both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic
volunteering behavior as supported by the literature across social rewards can include recognition and other social sanctions.
sciences and Marketing. Identifying those factors which are most Intrinsic rewards can include the psychological benefits associated
influential in motivating volunteering provides practical value to with helping others in need, fulfilling a perceived social
marketing managers in developing promotional strategies to responsibility derived from personal values, and meeting the
recruit volunteers. Our research also will contribute to a standards of one’s own morality.
theoretical framework for the marketing discipline. Previous research supports that those intrinsic factors
Much of the literature in the social sciences focuses on including personal ideals about social responsibility and attitudes
predicting volunteering behavior with underlying theories of toward volunteering may more directly influence attitudes and
resources availability. Other developments use demographic behavior toward volunteering than do socio-economic factors
attributes and socio-economic factors to best explain and predict (Wilson & Musik, 1997; Wilson & Janoski, 1995; Eckstein,
volunteering. While socioeconomic attributes may predict 2001). Additionally, the literature supports that participation in
volunteering behavior, they do not necessarily explain why people social networks and religious organizations can also explain and
choose to provide their human capital to charity. Isolated studies predict volunteering behavior (Eckstein, 2001; Fisher &
in Marketing and other social disciplines estimate the influence of Ackerman 1998). However, findings across the literature often
one or more social or psychological variables upon volunteering support the influence of either social or attitudinal factors upon
behavior. However, very few studies provide any integrative volunteering in the absence of one another. Consequently,
model of volunteering behavior that simultaneously estimates the conclusions may be drawn without regard for the degree to which
presence and degree of these different types of factors in
173
, one type of factor may influence volunteering behavior more than someone else, during the subject’s youth, will positively affect
another type, or the degree to which one factor may moderate or favorable attitudes toward volunteering.
mediate the influence of another in motivating volunteering Frequency of Social Activities within Networks
behavior. Moreover, previous studies generally do not estimate Prior research supports that the decision to volunteer is based
the role of attitudes toward volunteering in mediating or on one’s involvement with social activities. Groups, both formal
moderating the influence of social or other psychological factors. and informal, establish norms of approved attitudes and behavior.
The existing literature, found primarily in social sciences, Groups regulate the behavior of their members based on those
supports that volunteering behavior is predicted by 1) attitudes norms. Social approval from a group is one of the expectations of
toward the behavior, 2) previous exposure to modeling of helping adhering to group norms (Fisher and Ackerman, 1998). Social
behavior, 3) existing personal ideals toward social responsibility networks can substantially influence one’s decision to volunteer.
and volunteering, and 4) affiliation and participation in social In fact, the majority of volunteers do so in response to a request
organizations and networks. We briefly describe each of the from someone within a formal or informal social network. Where
constructs in our model. For details of the measured variables, the norm is to volunteer, social networks can substantially
please see Appendix 1. influence one’s decision to volunteer. The more that an individual
is involved socially, the more that opportunities for volunteering
Attitudes Toward Volunteering Behavior will occur, and the more likely that he or she will be asked to
Attitudes toward volunteering and the benefits to society volunteer (Eckstein, 2001). Frequency of social activities is
influence the individual’s decision to act. Analogous to consumer expected to positively influence volunteering behavior.
behavior is that the subject’s favorable attitudes toward a product, H4: Frequency of social activities, both with members of informal
service, or experience eventually affect the decision purchase. social networks and organized social networks, will positively
The indicators for this factor measure the subject’s attitude toward influence the subject’s likelihood to volunteer.
the importance of different aspects of volunteerism or toward
making the decision to volunteer (Please see Table 1 for individual Religiosity
measured variables). The literature strongly supports that religiosity directly
H1: Favorable attitudes that volunteering benefits society, and to affects an individual’s disposition toward volunteering, with
one’s self, positively influence the subject’s volunteering behavior. marked differences between religious and non-religious people
(Wilson & Musick 1997; Wilson and Janoski 1995). The decision
Personal Ideals of Social Responsibility and to volunteer also is often explained by religious reasons (Wuthnow
Volunteering 1991; Eckstein 2001). Religious organizations are highly likely to
Ideals have a dominant role in thinking and attitudes about provide information about volunteering opportunities and initiate
volunteerism (Broadbridge and Horne 1996). Personal motives recruitment (Eckstein 2001; Hodgkinson & Wuthnow 1990).
constitute the action, contribute to attitude formation and help to Given the morals and values on which most religious
shape behavior (Fischer and Schaffer 1993). This construct organizations are based, we can expect that membership and
includes those ideals and personal motivators that reflect a social participation would be associated with volunteering (Batson &
conscience toward helping those who are less fortunate, Flory 1990).
contributing back to society, or improving the moral condition of The collective nature of membership and participation in
society through one’s own actions. organized worship also lends support to the social influence of
H2: The degree of importance in which personal motivators have religiosity upon volunteering. Presence and degree of religiosity,
in volunteering is positively associated with favorable attitudes as characterized by participative behavior, is expected to
toward volunteering. positively affect perceived importance of volunteering benefits,
resulting in favorable attitudes toward volunteering.
Previous Exposure in Youth to Modeling Behavior H5a: Presence and degree of religiosity, as characterized by
In describing the construct of modeling of helping, two points membership affiliation and participation behavior, is positively
should be noted on helping behavior and our conceptual associated with favorable attitudes toward volunteering.
framework. First, while much of the literature has examined the H5b: Presence and degree of religiosity, as characterized by
effects of helping behavior and volunteering upon each other, membership affiliation and participation behavior, is positively
research does not support a direct relationship where individual associated with volunteering behavior.
helping behavior leads to formal volunteering (Wilson and Musick
1997). Second, the literature does provide evidence that Study Design and Proposed Model
witnessing helping behavior as modeled by others, particularly Based upon the hypotheses developed in our conceptual
parents, influences attitudes regarding helping and volunteering. framework, we propose the structural model displayed in Figure 1.
Modeling of helping behavior in youth has significant direct The proposed model includes six latent factors with loading, 21
effects upon volunteering behavior, role identity and intent to measured variables and a summation index variable (See Figure 1
volunteer in the future (Lee et al. 1997). The primary purpose of for structural Model. See Appendix 1 for variable description and
including measurement of recall from these experiences is to factor loadings).
evaluate their effects on subjects’ attitudes toward volunteering,
and subsequently, their own volunteer behavior. Sample
H3: Previous exposure to modeling of helping behaviors, either Data used for analysis was provided from the Independent
by witnessing role models help others, or by receiving help from Sector’s study on Giving and Volunteering in the United States
(1999). Data were collected through face-to-face interviews in
174
