10/16/24, 11:23 BISC 2202 Notes Lectures
AM 1-4
Lecture - 8/30/18
➢ Brightfield microscope - a light brightens and magnifies a sample
➢ Fluorescence microscope - most used for cell biology
○ Can be much more magnified
○ Usually requires dyes to distinguish structures
➢ Confocal microscopy
○ Gives the most clear, focused picture at high magnification
➢ Electron microscopy
○ Highly powerful
○ Give great spatial resolution
○ Great for seeing into cells
○ Types:
■ Transmission
■ Scannin
g Compare and contrast:
Resolution Thickness
of sample Source Labeling
of
energy
Brightfield Up to .2 microns Thin as possible Lamp None
Fluorescence Up to .2 microns Thin as possible Lamp Multicolor w/
dye Confocal Up to .2 microns Up to 1 mm Laser Multicolor w/
dye Electron .001 microns 50-100 nm Electrons 2 colors
Cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes
➢ Prokaryotes
○ Bacteria - most common and diverse life form on earth
■ No discernable structures within the cell
■ Fun fact: in humans, prokaryotic cells outnumber eukaryotic cells 3:1
■ Shapes
● Spherical
● Rod
● Spiral
■ Cell walls made of peptoglycen
■ Cannot survive extreme environments
○ Archaea
■ Tend to have unique chemistry
■ Can be aerobic or anaerobic
■ Found in harsh environments (volcanoes, ocean vents, etc)
■ Cell walls can be made from a variety of substances
○ New research implies some eukaryotic cells should go in archaea
○ What they have in common with eukaryotic cells:
■ Cell membrane
about:bl 1/
, 10/16/24, 11:23 BISC 2202 Notes Lectures
AM 1-4
■ DNA
■ Ribosomes
■ Cytoplasm
➢ Eukaryotes
○ Organelles
■ Nucleus - control cellular activity through regulation of gene
expression
■ Mitochondria/chloroplasts - generate ATP energy via cellular
respiration or photosynthesis
■ ER
● Smooth - lipid synthesis, detoxification, storing calcium ions
● Rough - protein synthesis, folding, antigen processing
■ Golgi apparatus - protein modification through glycosylation,
completion of glycolipid synthesis, protein maturation
■ Endosomes - sort proteins, travel between golgi and ER
■ Lysosomes - recycle and digest cell waste
■ Peroxisomes - detoxification of things like free radicals
➢ How eukaryotes formed
○ Prokaryotes may have symbiotically merged with a eukaryotic cell
○ Nucleus may have pinched off of a prokaryotic cell and enclosed DNA
○ Mitochondria has its own DNA and merged with an early prokaryotic cell
■ Symbiogenetic cell enslavement - a mutually beneficial
relationship where a smaller organism is engulfed in a larger cell
which gave it an evolutionary advantage
■ Allows larger cell to make it’s own energy
○ Chloroplasts - traps sunlight and turns it into energy
■ Only found in plants and algae
■ Contain chlorophyll
○ Beaver fever - a eukaryote (has 2 nuclei) with no mitochondria that
bridges the gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
○ Eukaryotes are most likely genomic mixes of their own ancient DNA
and have portions of archaea and bacterial DNA as well
➢ Main points
○ The evolution of eukaryotic cells involved endomembrane
compartmentalization from acquiring specialized organelles
○ Organelles include golgi, ER, lysosomes, nucleus, chloroplasts,
peroxisomes, etc
○ Some endomembranous organelles are hypothesized to have
evolved by inner membranous folds
○ Other organelles are believed to have originated from ancient
engulfed prokaryotes causing symbiotic relationships
➢ Organelles in more details
○ ER -
■ Smooth - carb and lipid metabolism
■ Rough - protein synthesis
○ Golgi - stacks of membranes. Use vesicles as vehicles for transport of
materials
about:bl 2/
AM 1-4
Lecture - 8/30/18
➢ Brightfield microscope - a light brightens and magnifies a sample
➢ Fluorescence microscope - most used for cell biology
○ Can be much more magnified
○ Usually requires dyes to distinguish structures
➢ Confocal microscopy
○ Gives the most clear, focused picture at high magnification
➢ Electron microscopy
○ Highly powerful
○ Give great spatial resolution
○ Great for seeing into cells
○ Types:
■ Transmission
■ Scannin
g Compare and contrast:
Resolution Thickness
of sample Source Labeling
of
energy
Brightfield Up to .2 microns Thin as possible Lamp None
Fluorescence Up to .2 microns Thin as possible Lamp Multicolor w/
dye Confocal Up to .2 microns Up to 1 mm Laser Multicolor w/
dye Electron .001 microns 50-100 nm Electrons 2 colors
Cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes
➢ Prokaryotes
○ Bacteria - most common and diverse life form on earth
■ No discernable structures within the cell
■ Fun fact: in humans, prokaryotic cells outnumber eukaryotic cells 3:1
■ Shapes
● Spherical
● Rod
● Spiral
■ Cell walls made of peptoglycen
■ Cannot survive extreme environments
○ Archaea
■ Tend to have unique chemistry
■ Can be aerobic or anaerobic
■ Found in harsh environments (volcanoes, ocean vents, etc)
■ Cell walls can be made from a variety of substances
○ New research implies some eukaryotic cells should go in archaea
○ What they have in common with eukaryotic cells:
■ Cell membrane
about:bl 1/
, 10/16/24, 11:23 BISC 2202 Notes Lectures
AM 1-4
■ DNA
■ Ribosomes
■ Cytoplasm
➢ Eukaryotes
○ Organelles
■ Nucleus - control cellular activity through regulation of gene
expression
■ Mitochondria/chloroplasts - generate ATP energy via cellular
respiration or photosynthesis
■ ER
● Smooth - lipid synthesis, detoxification, storing calcium ions
● Rough - protein synthesis, folding, antigen processing
■ Golgi apparatus - protein modification through glycosylation,
completion of glycolipid synthesis, protein maturation
■ Endosomes - sort proteins, travel between golgi and ER
■ Lysosomes - recycle and digest cell waste
■ Peroxisomes - detoxification of things like free radicals
➢ How eukaryotes formed
○ Prokaryotes may have symbiotically merged with a eukaryotic cell
○ Nucleus may have pinched off of a prokaryotic cell and enclosed DNA
○ Mitochondria has its own DNA and merged with an early prokaryotic cell
■ Symbiogenetic cell enslavement - a mutually beneficial
relationship where a smaller organism is engulfed in a larger cell
which gave it an evolutionary advantage
■ Allows larger cell to make it’s own energy
○ Chloroplasts - traps sunlight and turns it into energy
■ Only found in plants and algae
■ Contain chlorophyll
○ Beaver fever - a eukaryote (has 2 nuclei) with no mitochondria that
bridges the gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
○ Eukaryotes are most likely genomic mixes of their own ancient DNA
and have portions of archaea and bacterial DNA as well
➢ Main points
○ The evolution of eukaryotic cells involved endomembrane
compartmentalization from acquiring specialized organelles
○ Organelles include golgi, ER, lysosomes, nucleus, chloroplasts,
peroxisomes, etc
○ Some endomembranous organelles are hypothesized to have
evolved by inner membranous folds
○ Other organelles are believed to have originated from ancient
engulfed prokaryotes causing symbiotic relationships
➢ Organelles in more details
○ ER -
■ Smooth - carb and lipid metabolism
■ Rough - protein synthesis
○ Golgi - stacks of membranes. Use vesicles as vehicles for transport of
materials
about:bl 2/
