ANP 650 FINAL EXAM
LATEST ACTUAL EXAM
1. Question:
Describe the physiological role of aldosterone in the regulation of blood pressure.
Answer: Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex, plays a key
role in regulating blood pressure by controlling sodium and water balance. It acts on the distal
tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys, promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium
excretion. The increase in sodium reabsorption leads to water retention, which increases blood
volume and consequently raises blood pressure. This process is part of the renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system (RAAS), which is activated when blood pressure drops.
2. Question:
Explain the pathophysiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus.
Answer: Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is an autoimmune disorder where the body's immune system
attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. This leads to an absolute
deficiency of insulin, a hormone necessary for glucose uptake by cells. Without insulin, glucose
accumulates in the blood (hyperglycemia), while cells are starved of energy. Over time, this can
lead to complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis, neuropathy, retinopathy, and
cardiovascular disease.
3. Question:
What is the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems?
Answer: The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles. It
involves motor neurons that directly innervate muscles and produce conscious movement. The
autonomic nervous system, on the other hand, regulates involuntary functions such as heart
rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems, which have opposite effects: the sympathetic system prepares the body for "fight or
flight," while the parasympathetic system promotes "rest and digest" functions.
4. Question:
What are the main clinical manifestations of heart failure?
, Answer: The main clinical manifestations of heart failure include:
● Dyspnea (shortness of breath), particularly during exertion or lying down.
● Fatigue and weakness due to reduced cardiac output.
● Edema (swelling), especially in the lower extremities, due to fluid retention.
● Orthopnea (difficulty breathing while lying down).
● Cough or wheezing, often accompanied by frothy, blood-tinged sputum in severe cases.
● Elevated jugular venous pressure (JVP) and ascites (fluid accumulation in the
abdomen) in advanced stages.
5. Question:
Discuss the mechanism of action of beta-blockers and their use in hypertension.
Answer: Beta-blockers inhibit the action of catecholamines (such as norepinephrine and
epinephrine) on beta-adrenergic receptors, primarily located in the heart and blood vessels. By
blocking these receptors, beta-blockers reduce heart rate, myocardial contractility, and the
release of renin from the kidneys, leading to vasodilation and reduced blood pressure. They are
commonly used in the treatment of hypertension, angina, heart failure, and certain arrhythmias.
6. Question:
How does chronic kidney disease (CKD) contribute to anemia?
Answer: Chronic kidney disease often leads to anemia due to decreased production of
erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates the bone marrow to
produce red blood cells. As kidney function declines in CKD, EPO levels drop, resulting in
decreased red blood cell production and anemia. Other contributing factors include iron
deficiency, inflammation, and shortened red blood cell lifespan in CKD patients.
7. Question:
What are the major differences between Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis?
Answer: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are both types of inflammatory bowel disease
(IBD), but they differ in their location and nature of inflammation:
● Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus,
and inflammation is typically transmural (affecting all layers of the bowel wall). It often
leads to complications like fistulas and strictures.
● Ulcerative colitis is confined to the colon and rectum, with inflammation limited to the
mucosal layer of the bowel. It typically presents with continuous lesions, unlike the
patchy "skip lesions" seen in Crohn's disease.
8. Question:
Explain the process of synaptic transmission in the central nervous system.
Answer: Synaptic transmission begins when an action potential reaches the axon terminal of a
presynaptic neuron, triggering the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles into the
LATEST ACTUAL EXAM
1. Question:
Describe the physiological role of aldosterone in the regulation of blood pressure.
Answer: Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex, plays a key
role in regulating blood pressure by controlling sodium and water balance. It acts on the distal
tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys, promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium
excretion. The increase in sodium reabsorption leads to water retention, which increases blood
volume and consequently raises blood pressure. This process is part of the renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system (RAAS), which is activated when blood pressure drops.
2. Question:
Explain the pathophysiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus.
Answer: Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is an autoimmune disorder where the body's immune system
attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. This leads to an absolute
deficiency of insulin, a hormone necessary for glucose uptake by cells. Without insulin, glucose
accumulates in the blood (hyperglycemia), while cells are starved of energy. Over time, this can
lead to complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis, neuropathy, retinopathy, and
cardiovascular disease.
3. Question:
What is the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems?
Answer: The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles. It
involves motor neurons that directly innervate muscles and produce conscious movement. The
autonomic nervous system, on the other hand, regulates involuntary functions such as heart
rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems, which have opposite effects: the sympathetic system prepares the body for "fight or
flight," while the parasympathetic system promotes "rest and digest" functions.
4. Question:
What are the main clinical manifestations of heart failure?
, Answer: The main clinical manifestations of heart failure include:
● Dyspnea (shortness of breath), particularly during exertion or lying down.
● Fatigue and weakness due to reduced cardiac output.
● Edema (swelling), especially in the lower extremities, due to fluid retention.
● Orthopnea (difficulty breathing while lying down).
● Cough or wheezing, often accompanied by frothy, blood-tinged sputum in severe cases.
● Elevated jugular venous pressure (JVP) and ascites (fluid accumulation in the
abdomen) in advanced stages.
5. Question:
Discuss the mechanism of action of beta-blockers and their use in hypertension.
Answer: Beta-blockers inhibit the action of catecholamines (such as norepinephrine and
epinephrine) on beta-adrenergic receptors, primarily located in the heart and blood vessels. By
blocking these receptors, beta-blockers reduce heart rate, myocardial contractility, and the
release of renin from the kidneys, leading to vasodilation and reduced blood pressure. They are
commonly used in the treatment of hypertension, angina, heart failure, and certain arrhythmias.
6. Question:
How does chronic kidney disease (CKD) contribute to anemia?
Answer: Chronic kidney disease often leads to anemia due to decreased production of
erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates the bone marrow to
produce red blood cells. As kidney function declines in CKD, EPO levels drop, resulting in
decreased red blood cell production and anemia. Other contributing factors include iron
deficiency, inflammation, and shortened red blood cell lifespan in CKD patients.
7. Question:
What are the major differences between Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis?
Answer: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are both types of inflammatory bowel disease
(IBD), but they differ in their location and nature of inflammation:
● Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus,
and inflammation is typically transmural (affecting all layers of the bowel wall). It often
leads to complications like fistulas and strictures.
● Ulcerative colitis is confined to the colon and rectum, with inflammation limited to the
mucosal layer of the bowel. It typically presents with continuous lesions, unlike the
patchy "skip lesions" seen in Crohn's disease.
8. Question:
Explain the process of synaptic transmission in the central nervous system.
Answer: Synaptic transmission begins when an action potential reaches the axon terminal of a
presynaptic neuron, triggering the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles into the
