complete summary methods and techniques

Samenvatting methods and techniques
Problem 1 welcome to science
Science= a set of methods to collect information about phenomena in a
particular area of interest, building reliable base of knowledge about them.
Knowledge acquired through research; scientists identify phenomena to
study, develop hypothesis, conduct study, analyze data and disseminate
results.
Nothing in science is taken as absolute truthscientific observations,
conclusions and theories are always open to modification or abandonment
as new evidence arises.
Scientist= someone who does science, person who adopts methods of
science. Scientist approaches problem by defining parameters, seeking
out relevant information, subjecting proposed solutions to rigorous testing.
Empirical evidence= evidence based on observation or experimentation.
Basic and applied research
Basic research= investigate issues relevant confirmation or
disconfirmation theoretical or empirical positions. Main goal; acquire
general knowledge about phenomenon.
Applied research= primary goal is to generate information that can be
applied directly to real-world problems
Overlap:
Some research areas both basic and applied aspects, applied research is
not independent of theories.
Problems in scientific terms
Everyday strategies lack rigor to qualify as truly scientific approaches, if
we give more thought to explanations, often still based on hearsay,
conjecture, anecdotal evidence.
Confirmation bias= tendency to look for info that confirms prior beliefs and
assumptions and ignore or downplay info that doesn’t conform w/ own
beliefs and assumptions.
to avoid trap of easy untested explanations scientific method.
Exploring the causes of behavior
Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes, main goals;
 Build organized body of knowledge about subject matter
 Describe mental and behavioral processes, develop reliable
explanations processes.

,principal method for acquiring knowledge and uncovering causes of
behavior is research.
Explaining behavior
Science, protoscience, nonscience and pseudoscience
 True science= relies on established scientific methods to acquire
information and adheres to certain rules when determining validity
of info acquired.
 Protoscience= science at the edge of current scientific
understanding.
o Uses scientific method
o Has potential to develop into true science if phenomena
receive legitimate scientific support
o Can become pseudoscience if claims can not be empirically
verified.
o Epigenetics, computer science…
 Nonscience= legitimate academic discipline
o Uses systematic techniques to acquire info
o Supports positions through logical argument
o Lack empirical testing
 Pseudoscience= false science
o Puts forth ideas as scientific when they are not
o Shares characteristics w/ science
o Methods not up to standards true science
o Qualities that define pseudoscience;
 Situation-specific hypothesis explain away falsification
 No mechanisms for self-correction
 Relying on confirming one’s beliefs
 Shift burden of proof to skeptics
 Relying on nonscientific anecdotal evidence
 Avoiding peer-review
 Failing to build on existing base of knowledge
 Using impressive sounding jargon
 Failing to specify conditions under which ideas/ claims
not true.
Scientific explanations
 Empirical= explanation based on objective and systematic
observation. Events capable of verification by others
 Rational= follow rules of logic, consistent w/ known facts
 Testable
 Parsimonious= explanation that explains behavior w/ fewest nr.
Assumptions
 General
 Tentative= willingness to entertain possibility explanation is faulty

,  Rigorously evaluated= constantly evaluated for consistency
evidence and known principles
Commonsense explanations
 Limited information
 Previous experience
 Based on own sense what is true
 Accepted at face value
 Lacking generality
Belief-based explanations
 Accepted as absolute truth
 Come from ‘trusted’ source
 No evidence required
 Evidence explanation incorrect evidence disregarded or ignored
 Lacks generality
 Fails to produce testable predictions
 Assumes common occurrence highly unlikely events
When scientific explanations fail
Faulty inference
Wrong conclusion w/ observation; incorrectly inferring underlying
mechanisms that control behavior
Pseudoexplanations
 Rely on faith
 Circular explanation/ tautology
 Provides label rather than true explanation
 Avoid are there independent measures of behavior of interest and
proposed explanatory concept
Methods of inquiry
Knowledge about behavior can be acquired by several methods
 Method of authority= info from sources perceived to be expert
o Useful early stages acquiring knowledge
o Doesn’t always give valid answers;
 Source possibly not truly authoritative
 Source can be biased.
 Rational method=logically deduce conclusions from self-evident
truths
o Logical reasoning
o One of the assumptions in deducing incorrect conclusion
incorrect

, o Still important role science; ideas about relationships often
deduced from earlier assumptions
 Scientific method= series of 4 cyclical steps
o 1. Observing phenomenon;
 Identify variables= any characteristic or quantity that
can take on 2 or more values
o Formulating tentative explanations’
 Hypothesis has to be testable w/ empirical research
 How changes in value one variable will affect changes
value other variable
o Further observing and experimenting;
 Rule out alternative explanations
 Design research study to test proposed relationship
o Refining and retesting explanations;
the steps of the research process
1. Developing a research idea and hypothesis
2. Choosing a research design
3. Choosing subjects
4. Deciding on what to observe and appropriate measures;
a. Might be necessary to conduct pilot study
5. Conduct study
6. Analyzing results
7. Reporting results
8. Starting the whole process over again
What is a theory?
Theory= a plausible or scientifically acceptable, well-substantiated
explanation of some aspect of the natural world.
Partially verified statement concerning a relationship among variables, set
of interrelated propositions and corollaries specifying how variables relate
to phenomena.
What is a hypothesis?
Hypothesis= a tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon or
scientific problem, that can be tested by further investigation;
 Must be posed in a form that allows it to be rejected
 Not well-substantiated
 Educated guesses
 Specific events under specific circumstances
 Relatively simple
Law= relationship substantial support, not subject disconfirmation