,Gender
Gender: Psychological Perspectives synthesizes the latest research on gender to help students think critically
about the differences between research findings and stereotypes, provoking them to examine and revise their
own preconceptions. The text examines the behavioral, biological, and social contexts in which women and
men express gendered behaviors. The text’s unique pedagogical program helps students understand the
portrayal of gender in the media and the application of gender research in the real world. Headlines from the
news open each chapter to engage the reader. Gendered Voices boxes present true personal accounts of people’s
lives. According to the Media boxes highlight gender-related coverage in newspapers, magazines, books, TV,
and movies, while According to the Research boxes offer the latest scientifically based research to help students
analyze the accuracy and fairness of gender images presented in the media. Additionally, Considering Diversity
sections emphasize the cross-cultural perspective of gender.
This text is intended for undergraduate or graduate courses on the psychology of gender, psychology of sex,
psychology of women or men, gender issues, sex roles, women in society, and women’s or men’s studies. It is
also applicable to sociology and anthropology courses on diversity.
Seventh Edition Highlights
12 new headlines on topics ranging from gender and the Flynn effect to gender stereotyping that
affects men
Coverage of gender issues in aging adults and transgendered individuals
Expanded coverage of diversity issues in the US and around the globe, including the latest research
from China, Japan, and Europe
More tables, figures, and photos to provide summaries of text in an easy-to-absorb format
End-of-chapter summaries and glossary
Suggested readings for further exploration of chapter topics
A companion website at www.routledge.com/cw/Brannon where instructors will find lecture outlines,
PowerPoint slides, student activities, test questions, and website and video suggestions; and students
will find flashcards, student learner objectives, chapter outlines, and links to related websites and
further reading
Linda Brannon is Professor of Psychology at McNeese State University in Lake Charles, Louisiana.
2
,“Gender is a very important contribution to the study of gender in psychology. Its innovative format and unique organization provide for an
enjoyable learning experience for students of psychology.”
—Florence L. Denmark, Pace University
“Gender strikes the perfect balance between biological and social factors that inform the psychology of gender. Even more importantly, this
text is solidly based on scientific research findings rather than venturing into the minefield of gender politics.”
—Linda Heath, Loyola University Chicago
“Gender provides a readable review of both classic and recent research on gender. Linda Brannon is consistently balanced and empirical in
her stance, and original in the way she threads varied topics together to give the reader a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of
gender.”
Maureen C. McHugh, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
“Gender thoroughly covers the latest research on traditional topics, such as relationships and sexuality, and clearly presents newer topics such
as homosexuality, transsexuals, and sexual abuse. Excellent for psychology and sociology courses.”
—Nancy Netting, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Canada
“I have been happily using Gender for many editions now, and definitely plan to continue having seen the same excellent writing, research
foundation, and easy-to-follow organization in the seventh edition. My students like this text; I highly recommend it.”
—Karen J. Prager, The University of Texas at Dallas
3
,Gender
Psychological Perspectives
Seventh Edition
Linda Brannon
4
,Seventh edition published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Linda Brannon to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
First published 1996 by Allyn and Bacon
Sixth edition published 2010 by Psychology Press
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Brannon, Linda, 1948–author.
Title: Gender : psychological perspectives / Linda Brannon.
Description: Seventh Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2017. | Revised edition of the
author’s Gender, 2015.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016046499 | ISBN 9781138182356 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138182349 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315621821 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Sex differences (Psychology)—Textbooks. | Gender
identity—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC BF692.2 .B73 2017 | DDC 155.3—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016046499
ISBN: 978-1-138-18235-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-18234-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-62182-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Garamond
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
5
,Brief Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 The Study of Gender
2 Researching Sex and Gender
3 Gender Stereotypes: Masculinity and Femininity
4 Hormones and Chromosomes
5 Theories of Gender Development
6 Developing Gender Identity
7 Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities
8 Emotion
9 Relationships
10 Sexuality
11 School
12 Careers and Work
13 Health and Fitness
14 Stress, Coping, and Psychopathology
15 Treatment for Mental Disorders
16 How Different?
Index
6
,Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 The Study of Gender
Headline: “The End of Men,” Atlantic Monthly, July/August, 2010
History of the Study of Sex Differences in Psychology
The Study of Individual Differences
Psychoanalysis
The Development of Women’s Studies
The History of Feminist Movements
Sex or Gender?
Women in Psychology
The Appearance of the Men’s Movement
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
2 Researching Sex and Gender
Headline: “Does Gender Matter?” Nature, July 13, 2006
How Science Developed
Approaches to Research
Quantitative Research Methods
Experimental Designs
Ex Post Facto Studies
Surveys
Correlational Studies
Qualitative Research Methods
Interviews
Ethnography
7
, Focus Groups
Researchers’ Choices
Gender Bias in Research
Sources of Bias
Ways to Deal with Bias in Science
Advocating Transformation
Decreasing Bias
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
3 Gender Stereotypes: Masculinity and Femininity
Headline: “Gender Stereotypes Don’t Die Easily” Vancouver Sun, June 27, 2013
History of Stereotypes of Women and Men
The Cult of True Womanhood
Masculinities
Conceptualizing and Measuring Masculinity and Femininity
Explicit Measures of Stereotyping
Implicit Measures of Stereotyping
The Process and Implications of Stereotyping
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Perceptions of Women and Men
Stereotypes over the Lifespan
Negative Effects of Stereotyping
Stereotype Threat
Benevolent Sexism
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
4 Hormones and Chromosomes
Headline: “Venus and Mars Collide” New Scientist, March 5, 2011
The Endocrine System and Steroid Hormones
Sexual Differentiation
8
, Chromosomes
Prenatal Development of Male and Female Physiology
The Reproductive Organs
The Nervous System
Changes during Puberty
Changes during Adulthood
Variations in Sexual Development
Variations in Number of Sex Chromosomes
Problems Related to Prenatal Hormone Exposure
Hormones and Behavior Instability
Premenstrual Syndrome
Testosterone and Aggression
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
5 Theories of Gender Development
Headline: “Code Pink” Mother Jones, September/October, 2009
The Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development
Freud’s View of Gender Identity Development
Horney’s Theory of Gender
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories of Gender Development
Chodorow’s Emphasis on Mothering
Kaschak’s Antigone Phase
Social Learning Theory and Gender
Cognitive Theories of Gender Development
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Gender Schema Theory
Which Theory is Best?
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
6 Developing Gender Identity
9
, Headline: “A Boy’s Life” The Atlantic, November 2008
Gender Identity Development
Development during Childhood
The Sequence of Childhood Gender Role Development
Differences between Girls and Boys
Later Development
Influences on Gender Identity Development
Biological Factors and Gender Development
Family Environment and Gender Development
Peers and Gender Development
The Media and Gender Development
Gender Bias in the Media
Children and Media
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
7 Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities
Headline: “Is the Female of the Species Really More Intelligent Than the Male?” The Telegraph, July 17, 2012
Cognitive Abilities
Verbal Performance
Mathematical and Quantitative Performance
Spatial Performance
Other Cognitive Abilities
Source of the Differences
Biological Evidence for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Evidence for Other Sources of Gender Differences
Implications of Gender-Related Differences
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
8 Emotion
10
Gender: Psychological Perspectives synthesizes the latest research on gender to help students think critically
about the differences between research findings and stereotypes, provoking them to examine and revise their
own preconceptions. The text examines the behavioral, biological, and social contexts in which women and
men express gendered behaviors. The text’s unique pedagogical program helps students understand the
portrayal of gender in the media and the application of gender research in the real world. Headlines from the
news open each chapter to engage the reader. Gendered Voices boxes present true personal accounts of people’s
lives. According to the Media boxes highlight gender-related coverage in newspapers, magazines, books, TV,
and movies, while According to the Research boxes offer the latest scientifically based research to help students
analyze the accuracy and fairness of gender images presented in the media. Additionally, Considering Diversity
sections emphasize the cross-cultural perspective of gender.
This text is intended for undergraduate or graduate courses on the psychology of gender, psychology of sex,
psychology of women or men, gender issues, sex roles, women in society, and women’s or men’s studies. It is
also applicable to sociology and anthropology courses on diversity.
Seventh Edition Highlights
12 new headlines on topics ranging from gender and the Flynn effect to gender stereotyping that
affects men
Coverage of gender issues in aging adults and transgendered individuals
Expanded coverage of diversity issues in the US and around the globe, including the latest research
from China, Japan, and Europe
More tables, figures, and photos to provide summaries of text in an easy-to-absorb format
End-of-chapter summaries and glossary
Suggested readings for further exploration of chapter topics
A companion website at www.routledge.com/cw/Brannon where instructors will find lecture outlines,
PowerPoint slides, student activities, test questions, and website and video suggestions; and students
will find flashcards, student learner objectives, chapter outlines, and links to related websites and
further reading
Linda Brannon is Professor of Psychology at McNeese State University in Lake Charles, Louisiana.
2
,“Gender is a very important contribution to the study of gender in psychology. Its innovative format and unique organization provide for an
enjoyable learning experience for students of psychology.”
—Florence L. Denmark, Pace University
“Gender strikes the perfect balance between biological and social factors that inform the psychology of gender. Even more importantly, this
text is solidly based on scientific research findings rather than venturing into the minefield of gender politics.”
—Linda Heath, Loyola University Chicago
“Gender provides a readable review of both classic and recent research on gender. Linda Brannon is consistently balanced and empirical in
her stance, and original in the way she threads varied topics together to give the reader a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of
gender.”
Maureen C. McHugh, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
“Gender thoroughly covers the latest research on traditional topics, such as relationships and sexuality, and clearly presents newer topics such
as homosexuality, transsexuals, and sexual abuse. Excellent for psychology and sociology courses.”
—Nancy Netting, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Canada
“I have been happily using Gender for many editions now, and definitely plan to continue having seen the same excellent writing, research
foundation, and easy-to-follow organization in the seventh edition. My students like this text; I highly recommend it.”
—Karen J. Prager, The University of Texas at Dallas
3
,Gender
Psychological Perspectives
Seventh Edition
Linda Brannon
4
,Seventh edition published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Linda Brannon to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
First published 1996 by Allyn and Bacon
Sixth edition published 2010 by Psychology Press
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Brannon, Linda, 1948–author.
Title: Gender : psychological perspectives / Linda Brannon.
Description: Seventh Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2017. | Revised edition of the
author’s Gender, 2015.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016046499 | ISBN 9781138182356 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138182349 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315621821 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Sex differences (Psychology)—Textbooks. | Gender
identity—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC BF692.2 .B73 2017 | DDC 155.3—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016046499
ISBN: 978-1-138-18235-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-18234-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-62182-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Garamond
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
5
,Brief Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 The Study of Gender
2 Researching Sex and Gender
3 Gender Stereotypes: Masculinity and Femininity
4 Hormones and Chromosomes
5 Theories of Gender Development
6 Developing Gender Identity
7 Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities
8 Emotion
9 Relationships
10 Sexuality
11 School
12 Careers and Work
13 Health and Fitness
14 Stress, Coping, and Psychopathology
15 Treatment for Mental Disorders
16 How Different?
Index
6
,Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 The Study of Gender
Headline: “The End of Men,” Atlantic Monthly, July/August, 2010
History of the Study of Sex Differences in Psychology
The Study of Individual Differences
Psychoanalysis
The Development of Women’s Studies
The History of Feminist Movements
Sex or Gender?
Women in Psychology
The Appearance of the Men’s Movement
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
2 Researching Sex and Gender
Headline: “Does Gender Matter?” Nature, July 13, 2006
How Science Developed
Approaches to Research
Quantitative Research Methods
Experimental Designs
Ex Post Facto Studies
Surveys
Correlational Studies
Qualitative Research Methods
Interviews
Ethnography
7
, Focus Groups
Researchers’ Choices
Gender Bias in Research
Sources of Bias
Ways to Deal with Bias in Science
Advocating Transformation
Decreasing Bias
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
3 Gender Stereotypes: Masculinity and Femininity
Headline: “Gender Stereotypes Don’t Die Easily” Vancouver Sun, June 27, 2013
History of Stereotypes of Women and Men
The Cult of True Womanhood
Masculinities
Conceptualizing and Measuring Masculinity and Femininity
Explicit Measures of Stereotyping
Implicit Measures of Stereotyping
The Process and Implications of Stereotyping
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Perceptions of Women and Men
Stereotypes over the Lifespan
Negative Effects of Stereotyping
Stereotype Threat
Benevolent Sexism
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
4 Hormones and Chromosomes
Headline: “Venus and Mars Collide” New Scientist, March 5, 2011
The Endocrine System and Steroid Hormones
Sexual Differentiation
8
, Chromosomes
Prenatal Development of Male and Female Physiology
The Reproductive Organs
The Nervous System
Changes during Puberty
Changes during Adulthood
Variations in Sexual Development
Variations in Number of Sex Chromosomes
Problems Related to Prenatal Hormone Exposure
Hormones and Behavior Instability
Premenstrual Syndrome
Testosterone and Aggression
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
5 Theories of Gender Development
Headline: “Code Pink” Mother Jones, September/October, 2009
The Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development
Freud’s View of Gender Identity Development
Horney’s Theory of Gender
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories of Gender Development
Chodorow’s Emphasis on Mothering
Kaschak’s Antigone Phase
Social Learning Theory and Gender
Cognitive Theories of Gender Development
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Gender Schema Theory
Which Theory is Best?
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
6 Developing Gender Identity
9
, Headline: “A Boy’s Life” The Atlantic, November 2008
Gender Identity Development
Development during Childhood
The Sequence of Childhood Gender Role Development
Differences between Girls and Boys
Later Development
Influences on Gender Identity Development
Biological Factors and Gender Development
Family Environment and Gender Development
Peers and Gender Development
The Media and Gender Development
Gender Bias in the Media
Children and Media
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
7 Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities
Headline: “Is the Female of the Species Really More Intelligent Than the Male?” The Telegraph, July 17, 2012
Cognitive Abilities
Verbal Performance
Mathematical and Quantitative Performance
Spatial Performance
Other Cognitive Abilities
Source of the Differences
Biological Evidence for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Evidence for Other Sources of Gender Differences
Implications of Gender-Related Differences
Considering Diversity
Summary
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Suggested Websites
References
8 Emotion
10
