Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence D265 Question well performed 2024.

Proposition - ANSWERSstatements that can be true or false Non-Proposition - ANSWERSare not statements about matters of fact. They do not make a claim that can be true or false. Simple Proposition - ANSWERShave no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether a part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own. (the sky is blue) Complex Propositions - ANSWERShave internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether complex propositions are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false and how those parts are connected. (the sky is blue, but it does not look blue to me right now) Premise - ANSWERSa proposition lending support to the conclusion. (all poodles have curly hair) Bad Inferential Structure - ANSWERSIn arguments with a bad form or structure, the premises do not, in fact, demonstrate or maybe even support the conclusion. In other words, we can accept the premises as true without being logically compelled to accept the conclusion. False Premise - ANSWERSIn arguments with false premise(s), there is something wrong with their particular content. Conclusion Indicators - ANSWERSTherefore So It follows that Hence Thus Entails that We may conclude that Implies that Wherefore As a result Premise Indicators - ANSWERSBecause For Given that In that As Since As indicated by Conclusions - ANSWERSthe claim that the whole argument is intended to support or demonstrate or prove. Inference/Argument - ANSWERSAny time you are being asked to accept one claim on the basis of or because of any number of other claims, you have an inference/argument. "I believe x, because of y, z, and w" or "Because a, b and c, we have to believe that d." Inductive - ANSWERSif the premises do not guarantee the conclusion Deductive - ANSWERSif they intend to guarantee the conclusion or make the conclusion certain Abduction - ANSWERSArguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation Truth - ANSWERSA true proposition accurately represents reality Validity - ANSWERSIn a good deductive argument structure, true premises would make the conclusion necessarily true. (If not, it is an invalid structure.) Soundness - ANSWERSA deductive argument is sound if it has a valid structure and all its premises are true. (If an argument is deductive but has either an invalid structure or at least one false premise, then it is an unsound argument.) Strength - ANSWERSIn an inductive argument, the truth of the premises would make the conclusion probably true. Cogency - ANSWERSAn inductive argument is cogent if it is strong and all its premises are true. (If an argument is inductive but either is weak or has at least one false premise, then it is an uncogent argument.) Cognitive Bias - ANSWERSThe way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us. Alief - ANSWERSAn automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs. Heuristic - ANSWERSa rule of thumb, a ready strategy, or a shortcut Antecedent - ANSWERSThe word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. Consequent - ANSWERSfollowing as a result or effect Modus Ponens - ANSWERSif p is true, and if p implies q (p. q), then q is true. Modus Tollens - ANSWERSIf P, then Q. Not Q. Therefore, not P Affirming the Consequent - ANSWERSIf P then Q, Q Therefore P Denying the Antecedent - ANSWERSIf P then Q Not P Therefore, not Q The Fallacy Fallacy - ANSWERSYou presumed that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong. Confirmation Bias - ANSWERSa tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence Representativeness Bias - ANSWERSthe tendency to generalize from a small sample or a single event Anchoring and adjustment bias - ANSWERSthe tendency to make decisions based on an initial figure availability bias - ANSWERSitems that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently selections bias - ANSWERSthe tendency for scholars to select cases of study in a way that often leads to invalid conclusions about their hypotheses principle of charity - ANSWERSwe should choose the reconstructed argument that gives the benefit of the doubt to the person presenting the argument independent support - ANSWERSWhen each premise seems like its an argument for the conclusion on its own. conjoint support - ANSWERSWhen a premise doesn't seem to support the conclusion without the help of the other premises. hidden assumption - ANSWERSIllogical conclusion unsupported by evidence Ad hominem - ANSWERSa fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute genetic fallacy - ANSWERSCondemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it. straw figure - ANSWERSwhen a person simply ignores a person's actual position and substitutes a distorted, exaggerated or misrepresented version of that position red herring - ANSWERSA fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion appeal to authority - ANSWERSA fallacy in which a speaker or writer seeks to persuade not by giving evidence but by appealing to the respect people have for a famous person or institution. appeal to force - ANSWERSArguer threatens reader/listener appeal to popularity - ANSWERSArguing that a claim must be true merely because a substantial number of people believe it. appeal to consequences - ANSWERSattempt to motivate belief with either the good consequences of believing or the bad consequences of disbelieving equivocation - ANSWERSWhen a writer uses the same term in two different senses in an argument. appeal to ignorance - ANSWERSA fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness. slippery slope - ANSWERSA fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented texas sharpshooter - ANSWERSCherry-picking data clusters to suit an argument, or finding a pattern to fit a presumption. post hoc - ANSWERSAssuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. hasty generalization - ANSWERSA fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence. false dilemma - ANSWERSoccurs when it is suggested that only two alternatives exist even though there may be others begging the question - ANSWERSA fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt. burden of proof shifting - ANSWERSWhen one decides that someone else must prove them wrong when, in reality, they are the person with the burden of proof.