The Essence of Anthropology
Chapter 1
The Essence of Anthropology
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
1. Describe the discipline of anthropology and make connections between each of its four fields.
2. Compare anthropology to the sciences and humanities.
3. Identify the characteristics of anthropological field methods and the ethics of anthropological
research.
4. Explain the usefulness of anthropology in light of globalization.
Lecture Outline
I. The Anthropological Perspective
1. The authors define anthropology as Òthe study of humankind in all times and places.Ó
2. Other disciplines focus on humans in one way or another. Anthropology focuses on the
interconnections and interdependence of all aspects of the human experience.
3. This broad holistic perspective equips anthropologists to address human nature.
4. Anthropologists seek to apply a holistic perspective, viewing all aspects of culture in the
broadest possible context in order to understand their interconnections.
5. Anthropologists attempt to avoid ethnocentrism, a belief that the ways of oneÕs own culture
are the only proper ones.
6. Anthropology has links to many other disciplines and aims at the synthesis of various
approaches to the human experience.
7. In addition, until recently Europeans failed to recognize the common humanity they share with
others, a recognition essential to the anthropological enterprise.
a. A unique cross-cultural and historical perspective distinguishes anthropology from the
other social sciences and protects against culture-bound theories of human behavior
(those based on the assumptions and values of the researcherÕs own culture).
b. Anthropology can be seen as a laboratory, or testing ground, for the theories of other
disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and economics.
II. Anthropology and Its Fields
1. Anthropologists tend to specialize in one of four fields, or subdisciplines, of anthropology:
cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, archaeology, and biological (physical)
anthropology.
2. One specialty in anthropology that brings theoretical and applied approaches from both
cultural and physical anthropology to the study of human health and disease is medical
anthropology.
A. Cultural Anthropology
1. An anthropologist may use participant observation to better understand a particular way of
life.
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 1
, The Essence of Anthropology
2. The ethnographer must observe carefully to understand all parts of a culture Ð its social,
political, economic, and religious practices and institutions, and how these areas relate to
each other.
3. Ethnography provides the raw data for ethnology. The ethnology is the branch of cultural
anthropology that provides cross-cultural comparisons and theories that explain differences
and similarities from group to group.
4. Applied anthropology is the practical use of anthropological knowledge and methods to solve
practical problems, often for a specific client.
a. Today, anthropologists apply their findings to a variety of contexts ranging from business
to education to healthcare. This is applied cultural anthropology.
B. Linguistic Anthropology
1. Language allows people to create, preserve, and transmit details of their culture from
generation to generation.
2. Linguistic anthropology is a branch of anthropology that studies human languages.
a. Linguistic anthropologists investigate the structure, history, and relation to social and
cultural contexts through language.
b. Linguistic anthropology has three main branches: descriptive linguistics, historical
linguistics, and language in relation to social and cultural settings. All three yield
valuable information about how people communicate and how they understand the world
around them.
i. Descriptive linguistics involves recording, delineating, and analyzing all the features
of a language leading to a deeper understanding of that language.
ii. Historical linguistics focuses on all the features of a language at a given moment in
time.
iii. Linguistic anthropologists may look into the dynamic relationship between language
and culture to determine the degree to which they mutually influence each other.
c. Linguistic anthropologists apply their research to many areas of life. For example, these
anthropologists may assist small ethnic groups in the preservation or revival of languages
that have been suppressed by dominant societies. Another example of applied linguistic
anthropology is the creation of written forms of languages that previously only existed
orally.
C. Archaeology
1. Archaeology is the study of cultures through the recovery and analysis of material remains
and environmental data.
a. A number of topical archaeological subspecialties exist including historical archaeology
(the study of places for which records exist), bioarchaeology (the study of human
remains), contemporary archaeology (studying how people use material currently),
applied archaeology (use of data on current cultures, such as landfill excavations to
inform concerned parties on modern issues), and culture resource management
(concerned with survey and/or excavation of archaeological and historical remains that
might be threatened by construction or development).
i. Culture resource management is most often tied to government policies for the
protection of cultural resources threatened by construction or development.
D. Biological Anthropology
1. Physical or biological anthropology focuses on humans as biological organisms, examining
human evolution and contemporary human variation.
a. Molecular anthropology, or the study of genes and genetic relationships, is another vital
component of physical anthropology.
b. Paleoanthropologists study human origins.
c. Primatology concerns itself with research on living and fossil primates to help understand
the unique characteristics of human nature.
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 2
, The Essence of Anthropology
d. Another specialty of physical anthropologists is the study of human growth, adaptation,
and variation.
e. Forensic anthropology is a field of applied physical anthropology that specializes in the
identification of human skeletal remains for legal purposes.
III. Anthropology, Science, and the Humanities
1. Anthropologists often consider themselves to be among the most scientific and humane of the
humanities.
2. Anthropologists are committed to the idea that in order to fully understand a culture, one
must experience it rather than just observe it. The inclusion of participant observation in their
fieldwork is an important component.
3. Anthropology is an empirical social science based on observations or information taken in
through the senses and verified by others in a qualitative or quantitative manner.
4. Scientific investigation consists of posing a hypothesis and eventually developing a theory
that best accounts for the phenomena observed.
5. Scientific opinion is actively debated and changes over time.
6. For anthropology, the science model has a great deal of appeal but many problems as well.
7. By encompassing elements of both science and humanities models, anthropology is able to
utilize a diverse set of methods that make its investigation unique from other disciplines.
IV. Doing Anthropology in the Field
1. Fieldwork is characteristic of all the anthropological subdisciplines.
2. It requires the researcher to step out of his or her comfort zone and experience circumstances
that are sometimes unfamiliar and unsettling, which may result in culture shock.
3. It also leads to personal rewards such as friendship as well as professional accomplishments
in the pursuit of vital information.
V. Questions of Ethics
1. Because of the kinds of research pursued by anthropologists, ethical questions often arise.
2. In recent years, debates have arisen concerning the potential ethical breaches that may occur
if anthropologists work for corporations or undertake classified contract work for the military.
3. To overcome these possible ethical breaches, closer work with the local community is
encouraged.
4. Foremost among these is the duty of the anthropologist to the people he/she studies, which
may sometimes conflict with the disciplineÕs imperative of collecting and publishing
information.
VI. Anthropology and Globalization
1. Because of anthropologyÕs commitment to holism, it is in a good position to aid in the
resolution of contemporary problems as well as to contribute to knowledge per se.
2. The authors conclude this chapter with a discussion of globalization, the worldwide
interconnectedness consisting of the rapid global movement of natural resources, trade goods,
human labor, finance capital, information, and infectious diseases.
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 3
, The Essence of Anthropology
Features with Discussion Topics and Homework Assignments
A. Visual CounterpointÑSleeping Habits Across Cultures: This visual inset contrasts a typical
American infantÕs sleeping pattern (infant sleeping alone in a crib) with a mother sleeping together
with an infant in Chakradharpur, India (co-sleeping).
1. Homework assignment: Ask students to research the described benefits and detriments of
these two types of sleeping patterns, to collect notes on their research, and to prepare to
discuss them in class. Debate the topic in class by assigning students to act as spokesmen for
each of the sleeping patterns. Debrief the debate by discussing this as well as other examples
of cultural practices that that may be present in a society yet where research indicates it is not
the norm.
B. Biocultural ConnectionÑPicturing Pesticides: This biocultural connection focuses on pesticide
use. Anthropologist Elizabeth Guillette and colleagues from the Technological Institute of Sonora
in Obregon, Mexico compared the effects of pesticides on human development between two
communities of Yaqui Indians. Children in a more-exposed farming community showed less ability
to excel at normal childhood activities such as jumping, memory games, and drawing activities
when compared to a less-exposed ranching community. The study emphasized that higher levels of
pesticide use would likely have the same detrimental effects around the globe.
1. Discussion: Ask students to outline other potential studies of pesticide use around the world.
What are some other contexts within which such studies could be carried out?
C. Anthropologists of NoteÑFranz Boas, Matilda Coxe Stephenson: This article describes the
pioneering accomplishments of two anthropologists. It was through the work of Boas that
anthropology courses became common on college campuses. Through his work, he strived to
promote anthropology as a means to combat hate and prejudice in the world. Stephenson did
fieldwork among the Zuni and was one of the first women to hold a full-time position in science.
Both Boas and Stephenson were also pioneers in the field of visual anthropology.
1. Homework assignment: Have students prepare a poster highlighting one of the pioneers of
anthropology. The poster should list their major accomplishments and describe how their
work contributed to the field of anthropology.
D. Anthropology AppliedÑForensic Anthropology: Voices for the Dead: This inset describes the
field of forensic anthropology and discusses the work of Mercedes Doretti, Michael Blakey and
especially Clyde C. Snow, who studied forensic remains related to the Battle of Little Big Horn and
identified the Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele. He recently aided in identifying the ÒdisappearedÓ
in Argentina. The text also discusses the work of teams sent to identify remains in Mexico,
Honduras, El Salvador, and Rwanda as well as the African Burial Ground Project.
1. Homework assignment: Ask students to research the work of a forensic anthropologist, and
to then write a paper detailing the information that was gained. How did the research add to
the information already available from historians? Did it serve to change the information that
was available?
E. Original StudyÑWhispers from the Ice: This story not only summarizes the journey of an
archaeological dig but also highlights the importance of scientists and local communities working
together for the benefit of both. After a summer rainstorm exposed part of a prehistoric village near
the modern community of Barrow, Alaska, scientists and local Inupiat people worked together
during the excavation process and on guidelines for handling sensitive tribal remains. The main
human finding was the skeleton of a girl dated to AD 1200. Compromises were made as to how to
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 4
Chapter 1
The Essence of Anthropology
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
1. Describe the discipline of anthropology and make connections between each of its four fields.
2. Compare anthropology to the sciences and humanities.
3. Identify the characteristics of anthropological field methods and the ethics of anthropological
research.
4. Explain the usefulness of anthropology in light of globalization.
Lecture Outline
I. The Anthropological Perspective
1. The authors define anthropology as Òthe study of humankind in all times and places.Ó
2. Other disciplines focus on humans in one way or another. Anthropology focuses on the
interconnections and interdependence of all aspects of the human experience.
3. This broad holistic perspective equips anthropologists to address human nature.
4. Anthropologists seek to apply a holistic perspective, viewing all aspects of culture in the
broadest possible context in order to understand their interconnections.
5. Anthropologists attempt to avoid ethnocentrism, a belief that the ways of oneÕs own culture
are the only proper ones.
6. Anthropology has links to many other disciplines and aims at the synthesis of various
approaches to the human experience.
7. In addition, until recently Europeans failed to recognize the common humanity they share with
others, a recognition essential to the anthropological enterprise.
a. A unique cross-cultural and historical perspective distinguishes anthropology from the
other social sciences and protects against culture-bound theories of human behavior
(those based on the assumptions and values of the researcherÕs own culture).
b. Anthropology can be seen as a laboratory, or testing ground, for the theories of other
disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and economics.
II. Anthropology and Its Fields
1. Anthropologists tend to specialize in one of four fields, or subdisciplines, of anthropology:
cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, archaeology, and biological (physical)
anthropology.
2. One specialty in anthropology that brings theoretical and applied approaches from both
cultural and physical anthropology to the study of human health and disease is medical
anthropology.
A. Cultural Anthropology
1. An anthropologist may use participant observation to better understand a particular way of
life.
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 1
, The Essence of Anthropology
2. The ethnographer must observe carefully to understand all parts of a culture Ð its social,
political, economic, and religious practices and institutions, and how these areas relate to
each other.
3. Ethnography provides the raw data for ethnology. The ethnology is the branch of cultural
anthropology that provides cross-cultural comparisons and theories that explain differences
and similarities from group to group.
4. Applied anthropology is the practical use of anthropological knowledge and methods to solve
practical problems, often for a specific client.
a. Today, anthropologists apply their findings to a variety of contexts ranging from business
to education to healthcare. This is applied cultural anthropology.
B. Linguistic Anthropology
1. Language allows people to create, preserve, and transmit details of their culture from
generation to generation.
2. Linguistic anthropology is a branch of anthropology that studies human languages.
a. Linguistic anthropologists investigate the structure, history, and relation to social and
cultural contexts through language.
b. Linguistic anthropology has three main branches: descriptive linguistics, historical
linguistics, and language in relation to social and cultural settings. All three yield
valuable information about how people communicate and how they understand the world
around them.
i. Descriptive linguistics involves recording, delineating, and analyzing all the features
of a language leading to a deeper understanding of that language.
ii. Historical linguistics focuses on all the features of a language at a given moment in
time.
iii. Linguistic anthropologists may look into the dynamic relationship between language
and culture to determine the degree to which they mutually influence each other.
c. Linguistic anthropologists apply their research to many areas of life. For example, these
anthropologists may assist small ethnic groups in the preservation or revival of languages
that have been suppressed by dominant societies. Another example of applied linguistic
anthropology is the creation of written forms of languages that previously only existed
orally.
C. Archaeology
1. Archaeology is the study of cultures through the recovery and analysis of material remains
and environmental data.
a. A number of topical archaeological subspecialties exist including historical archaeology
(the study of places for which records exist), bioarchaeology (the study of human
remains), contemporary archaeology (studying how people use material currently),
applied archaeology (use of data on current cultures, such as landfill excavations to
inform concerned parties on modern issues), and culture resource management
(concerned with survey and/or excavation of archaeological and historical remains that
might be threatened by construction or development).
i. Culture resource management is most often tied to government policies for the
protection of cultural resources threatened by construction or development.
D. Biological Anthropology
1. Physical or biological anthropology focuses on humans as biological organisms, examining
human evolution and contemporary human variation.
a. Molecular anthropology, or the study of genes and genetic relationships, is another vital
component of physical anthropology.
b. Paleoanthropologists study human origins.
c. Primatology concerns itself with research on living and fossil primates to help understand
the unique characteristics of human nature.
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 2
, The Essence of Anthropology
d. Another specialty of physical anthropologists is the study of human growth, adaptation,
and variation.
e. Forensic anthropology is a field of applied physical anthropology that specializes in the
identification of human skeletal remains for legal purposes.
III. Anthropology, Science, and the Humanities
1. Anthropologists often consider themselves to be among the most scientific and humane of the
humanities.
2. Anthropologists are committed to the idea that in order to fully understand a culture, one
must experience it rather than just observe it. The inclusion of participant observation in their
fieldwork is an important component.
3. Anthropology is an empirical social science based on observations or information taken in
through the senses and verified by others in a qualitative or quantitative manner.
4. Scientific investigation consists of posing a hypothesis and eventually developing a theory
that best accounts for the phenomena observed.
5. Scientific opinion is actively debated and changes over time.
6. For anthropology, the science model has a great deal of appeal but many problems as well.
7. By encompassing elements of both science and humanities models, anthropology is able to
utilize a diverse set of methods that make its investigation unique from other disciplines.
IV. Doing Anthropology in the Field
1. Fieldwork is characteristic of all the anthropological subdisciplines.
2. It requires the researcher to step out of his or her comfort zone and experience circumstances
that are sometimes unfamiliar and unsettling, which may result in culture shock.
3. It also leads to personal rewards such as friendship as well as professional accomplishments
in the pursuit of vital information.
V. Questions of Ethics
1. Because of the kinds of research pursued by anthropologists, ethical questions often arise.
2. In recent years, debates have arisen concerning the potential ethical breaches that may occur
if anthropologists work for corporations or undertake classified contract work for the military.
3. To overcome these possible ethical breaches, closer work with the local community is
encouraged.
4. Foremost among these is the duty of the anthropologist to the people he/she studies, which
may sometimes conflict with the disciplineÕs imperative of collecting and publishing
information.
VI. Anthropology and Globalization
1. Because of anthropologyÕs commitment to holism, it is in a good position to aid in the
resolution of contemporary problems as well as to contribute to knowledge per se.
2. The authors conclude this chapter with a discussion of globalization, the worldwide
interconnectedness consisting of the rapid global movement of natural resources, trade goods,
human labor, finance capital, information, and infectious diseases.
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 3
, The Essence of Anthropology
Features with Discussion Topics and Homework Assignments
A. Visual CounterpointÑSleeping Habits Across Cultures: This visual inset contrasts a typical
American infantÕs sleeping pattern (infant sleeping alone in a crib) with a mother sleeping together
with an infant in Chakradharpur, India (co-sleeping).
1. Homework assignment: Ask students to research the described benefits and detriments of
these two types of sleeping patterns, to collect notes on their research, and to prepare to
discuss them in class. Debate the topic in class by assigning students to act as spokesmen for
each of the sleeping patterns. Debrief the debate by discussing this as well as other examples
of cultural practices that that may be present in a society yet where research indicates it is not
the norm.
B. Biocultural ConnectionÑPicturing Pesticides: This biocultural connection focuses on pesticide
use. Anthropologist Elizabeth Guillette and colleagues from the Technological Institute of Sonora
in Obregon, Mexico compared the effects of pesticides on human development between two
communities of Yaqui Indians. Children in a more-exposed farming community showed less ability
to excel at normal childhood activities such as jumping, memory games, and drawing activities
when compared to a less-exposed ranching community. The study emphasized that higher levels of
pesticide use would likely have the same detrimental effects around the globe.
1. Discussion: Ask students to outline other potential studies of pesticide use around the world.
What are some other contexts within which such studies could be carried out?
C. Anthropologists of NoteÑFranz Boas, Matilda Coxe Stephenson: This article describes the
pioneering accomplishments of two anthropologists. It was through the work of Boas that
anthropology courses became common on college campuses. Through his work, he strived to
promote anthropology as a means to combat hate and prejudice in the world. Stephenson did
fieldwork among the Zuni and was one of the first women to hold a full-time position in science.
Both Boas and Stephenson were also pioneers in the field of visual anthropology.
1. Homework assignment: Have students prepare a poster highlighting one of the pioneers of
anthropology. The poster should list their major accomplishments and describe how their
work contributed to the field of anthropology.
D. Anthropology AppliedÑForensic Anthropology: Voices for the Dead: This inset describes the
field of forensic anthropology and discusses the work of Mercedes Doretti, Michael Blakey and
especially Clyde C. Snow, who studied forensic remains related to the Battle of Little Big Horn and
identified the Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele. He recently aided in identifying the ÒdisappearedÓ
in Argentina. The text also discusses the work of teams sent to identify remains in Mexico,
Honduras, El Salvador, and Rwanda as well as the African Burial Ground Project.
1. Homework assignment: Ask students to research the work of a forensic anthropologist, and
to then write a paper detailing the information that was gained. How did the research add to
the information already available from historians? Did it serve to change the information that
was available?
E. Original StudyÑWhispers from the Ice: This story not only summarizes the journey of an
archaeological dig but also highlights the importance of scientists and local communities working
together for the benefit of both. After a summer rainstorm exposed part of a prehistoric village near
the modern community of Barrow, Alaska, scientists and local Inupiat people worked together
during the excavation process and on guidelines for handling sensitive tribal remains. The main
human finding was the skeleton of a girl dated to AD 1200. Compromises were made as to how to
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 4
