Caesar as popularis and dictator
- Painted as a fundamentally populist politician
The first triumvirate
- Caesar – followed model roman republican statesman’s career
Quaestor – 69
Aedile – 65
Pontifex maximus – 63
Prator – 62
Governed Spain – 61
Consul – 59
- Alliance of first triumvirate (Caesar, Pompey and Crassus) – described as ‘the ultimate origin of the
civil war of 49’ – Scullard
- Caesar – driving force behind alliance
- Pompey and Crassus had not always been on friendly terms
- Term first triumvirate was coined retrospectively – it had no official recognition
Functioned as a powerful and political amicitia
- Alliance formed to counteract the hostility of the optimates in the senate
- Caesar – perceived as an unapologetic populist championing popular reforms whilst holding important
offices of state
Strengthened tied with Pompey and Crassus at the same time
- Marcus Licinius Crassus – 115-53
Roman general and politician
Fought for Sulla in early 1st century
Gained much of his wealth through property acquisitor from the years that followed
Benefited hugely from proscriptions
Best known for his role in putting down a slave revolt in 73-71 led by Spartacus
Shared consulship with Pompey in 70 and 55
Died in battle of Carrhae against Parthians in 53 – alleged to have poured molten gold into his
mouth as a symbol for his insatiable thirst for wealth
- Caesar indebted to Crassus – funded his election campaigns and spectacles at Rome for the people’s
entertainment
- Caesar had publicly supported Pompey in many of his interests
- Pompey’s requests to senate in 60 – land allocation for veterans and ratification of his treaties with
the east
Had been outright rejected by the optimates
- Crassus – requested senate’s approval of a rebate foe the tax farmers in Asia
Dismissed by optimates
Crassus was championing the business interest of the equites
- Frustration and bruised dignitas would have contributed to the formation of the triumvirate
Dignitas – dignity/prestige associated particularly with social/religious/political standing
- Formed as a pact/agreement to enable each of the triumvirs to fulfil their immediate political desires
Combined wealth of Crassus and his support from the equites, the military prestige and support
of Pompey and his veterans and political and military prowess of Caesar and his huge popularity
with the urban masses
Caesar’s first consulship
- Shared position with optimate conservative Bibulus (son-in-law of Cato) in 59
- Caesar’s most pressing concern – placate Pompey’s veteran soldiers
Approach was measured and respectful – brought case for land allocation before senate for
debate
Optimates outright rejected it
, - Caesar took it to the assembly of the people for ratification – was passed
- Bibulus – fled to his house where he stayed for the rest of the 8 months of his consulship
- Claimed that he as an augur was watching the skies and finding unfavourable signs and condemning
Caesar’s new laws as illegal
Augur – state religious official at Rome who could read the flight of birds and interpret them as
divine favour/disapproval of major decision of the state
- Caesar later introduced the Campanian law – ruled that remaining public land of Italy in Campania
should be divided in 20,000 pieces of land and distributed to veterans and fathers of large urban
families
Uprooted significant numbers of rural peasantry who had bee cultivating the land
Stood as a symbolic gesture of the importance and power of the military and the urban populace
- Used his position to benefit Crassus and consolidate the favour of the equites
- Vatinius (loyal tribune) – ensured that the senate agreed to adjust an agreement that had been made
contracting out the tax gathering in the province of Asia
Proved financially unattractive for the equites responsible – equites requesting a rebate to
recover their losses
o Rebate of 1/3 agreed
- Further legislated to improve the lives of provincials
Legislation that restricted the exploitation of the provinces by roman governors and their staff –
strict accounting was to be practiced and gifts restricted
Further removal of favour from nobiles
- Succeeded in establishing himself military command for Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years with 3 legions
- Had looked to the concerns of some of the urban poor with his land reforms
- Results of Caesar’s actions had a detrimental effect on the optimates and their political vision
- Bonds between first triumvirate – extension of the essential and established network of amicitia in
roman society and politics
Politics of the civil war
- Crossed Rubicon with his legion on 10th January 49 – started civil war
- Can be seen as a revolutionary act of a deeply ambitious individual ready to take on the state of
Rome / the behaviour of a man with few realistic options left
- Early 58 – Caesar set out for Gaul with 3 legions
Left Pompey in Rome to protect the interests of the triumvirate
- Consular year – Caesar and Pompey had enabled clodius to renounce his patrician status and be
adopted into the plebeian class
Enabled him to run for triumvirate
Support for clodius planted to secure his reciprocal support for the triumvirs – especially in
Caesar’s absence
- 58 – clodius secured the exile of cicero and the temporary extraction of Cato from Rome (under
official state duty of annexing Cyprus)
- Clodius – got populist legislation of his own passed directly through the popular assembly
Built a significant support base in Rome among the urban masses
- Introduction of free corn dole and repeal of cicero’s law forbidding trade guilds and other associations
– enabled clodius to mastermind the creation of gangs of supporters
Used gangs to intimidate potential critics of his actions
- Clodius’ personal ambition threatened the triumvirate
- Pompey – publicly attacked by clodius’ new gangs
Retired from public life for most of 58 – stayed in his home for his own safety
o Gang warfare prevailed the streets of Rome
o Stayed in his home until he rallied counter-gangs to defend himself
- Antagonistic voices were increasingly heard against the legality of Caesar’s legislation in 59
- Painted as a fundamentally populist politician
The first triumvirate
- Caesar – followed model roman republican statesman’s career
Quaestor – 69
Aedile – 65
Pontifex maximus – 63
Prator – 62
Governed Spain – 61
Consul – 59
- Alliance of first triumvirate (Caesar, Pompey and Crassus) – described as ‘the ultimate origin of the
civil war of 49’ – Scullard
- Caesar – driving force behind alliance
- Pompey and Crassus had not always been on friendly terms
- Term first triumvirate was coined retrospectively – it had no official recognition
Functioned as a powerful and political amicitia
- Alliance formed to counteract the hostility of the optimates in the senate
- Caesar – perceived as an unapologetic populist championing popular reforms whilst holding important
offices of state
Strengthened tied with Pompey and Crassus at the same time
- Marcus Licinius Crassus – 115-53
Roman general and politician
Fought for Sulla in early 1st century
Gained much of his wealth through property acquisitor from the years that followed
Benefited hugely from proscriptions
Best known for his role in putting down a slave revolt in 73-71 led by Spartacus
Shared consulship with Pompey in 70 and 55
Died in battle of Carrhae against Parthians in 53 – alleged to have poured molten gold into his
mouth as a symbol for his insatiable thirst for wealth
- Caesar indebted to Crassus – funded his election campaigns and spectacles at Rome for the people’s
entertainment
- Caesar had publicly supported Pompey in many of his interests
- Pompey’s requests to senate in 60 – land allocation for veterans and ratification of his treaties with
the east
Had been outright rejected by the optimates
- Crassus – requested senate’s approval of a rebate foe the tax farmers in Asia
Dismissed by optimates
Crassus was championing the business interest of the equites
- Frustration and bruised dignitas would have contributed to the formation of the triumvirate
Dignitas – dignity/prestige associated particularly with social/religious/political standing
- Formed as a pact/agreement to enable each of the triumvirs to fulfil their immediate political desires
Combined wealth of Crassus and his support from the equites, the military prestige and support
of Pompey and his veterans and political and military prowess of Caesar and his huge popularity
with the urban masses
Caesar’s first consulship
- Shared position with optimate conservative Bibulus (son-in-law of Cato) in 59
- Caesar’s most pressing concern – placate Pompey’s veteran soldiers
Approach was measured and respectful – brought case for land allocation before senate for
debate
Optimates outright rejected it
, - Caesar took it to the assembly of the people for ratification – was passed
- Bibulus – fled to his house where he stayed for the rest of the 8 months of his consulship
- Claimed that he as an augur was watching the skies and finding unfavourable signs and condemning
Caesar’s new laws as illegal
Augur – state religious official at Rome who could read the flight of birds and interpret them as
divine favour/disapproval of major decision of the state
- Caesar later introduced the Campanian law – ruled that remaining public land of Italy in Campania
should be divided in 20,000 pieces of land and distributed to veterans and fathers of large urban
families
Uprooted significant numbers of rural peasantry who had bee cultivating the land
Stood as a symbolic gesture of the importance and power of the military and the urban populace
- Used his position to benefit Crassus and consolidate the favour of the equites
- Vatinius (loyal tribune) – ensured that the senate agreed to adjust an agreement that had been made
contracting out the tax gathering in the province of Asia
Proved financially unattractive for the equites responsible – equites requesting a rebate to
recover their losses
o Rebate of 1/3 agreed
- Further legislated to improve the lives of provincials
Legislation that restricted the exploitation of the provinces by roman governors and their staff –
strict accounting was to be practiced and gifts restricted
Further removal of favour from nobiles
- Succeeded in establishing himself military command for Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years with 3 legions
- Had looked to the concerns of some of the urban poor with his land reforms
- Results of Caesar’s actions had a detrimental effect on the optimates and their political vision
- Bonds between first triumvirate – extension of the essential and established network of amicitia in
roman society and politics
Politics of the civil war
- Crossed Rubicon with his legion on 10th January 49 – started civil war
- Can be seen as a revolutionary act of a deeply ambitious individual ready to take on the state of
Rome / the behaviour of a man with few realistic options left
- Early 58 – Caesar set out for Gaul with 3 legions
Left Pompey in Rome to protect the interests of the triumvirate
- Consular year – Caesar and Pompey had enabled clodius to renounce his patrician status and be
adopted into the plebeian class
Enabled him to run for triumvirate
Support for clodius planted to secure his reciprocal support for the triumvirs – especially in
Caesar’s absence
- 58 – clodius secured the exile of cicero and the temporary extraction of Cato from Rome (under
official state duty of annexing Cyprus)
- Clodius – got populist legislation of his own passed directly through the popular assembly
Built a significant support base in Rome among the urban masses
- Introduction of free corn dole and repeal of cicero’s law forbidding trade guilds and other associations
– enabled clodius to mastermind the creation of gangs of supporters
Used gangs to intimidate potential critics of his actions
- Clodius’ personal ambition threatened the triumvirate
- Pompey – publicly attacked by clodius’ new gangs
Retired from public life for most of 58 – stayed in his home for his own safety
o Gang warfare prevailed the streets of Rome
o Stayed in his home until he rallied counter-gangs to defend himself
- Antagonistic voices were increasingly heard against the legality of Caesar’s legislation in 59
