[Research Methods 2: Week 1 ]
= Memorize this by heart:
|| Lecture 1:
Research Methods can be defined as:
The collection of tools that allow one to update beliefs through rational and empirical means.
In the social sciences this involves formulating theories that allow one to describe, explain,
predict (and often control) human behavior.
Empirical Cycle: From theory to data and back!!
Is it an Endless Loop or Are Theories Eventually Abandoned if Proven False?
Abstract: The constructs and relationships described in a theory are abstract and cannot be
directly measured. Researchers must use indirect methods and operational definitions to
empirically measure these constructs.
Operationalization: Although theories are abstract, they can be operationalized. This means
that the abstract concepts within a theory can be translated into specific, measurable
variables for empirical testing.
Empirical Basis: The formulation of theories is grounded in empirical evidence and prior studies.
They synthesize existing knowledge to explain observed phenomena.
Conceptual Framework: Theories are often conceptual, meaning they provide a broad framework
for understanding phenomena. This broad framework can guide researchers in developing more
specific, testable hypotheses.
|| Components of Theories ||
,1. Assumptions (often implicit): Assumptions are fundamental beliefs or assertions that underlie a
theory – might not always be explicitly stated but serve as the foundation upon which the theory
is built.
2. Variables – conceptual and operationalized constructs: Variables are the key elements within a
theory that are studied and measured to understand their relationships and effects.
Conceptual variables = Are abstract ideas or concepts that are not directly observable but
are theorized to exist – For example, "intelligence" or "happiness" are conceptual variables”.
Operationalized variables The specific, measurable representations of conceptual variables.
They define how the conceptual variables will be observed or measured in empirical research.
For example, in a study of stress in students during a university semester, a conceptual
definition would describe what is meant by 'stress'. While an operational definition
would describe how the 'stress' would be measured.
3. Propositions – relationships between variables: Are statements or hypotheses that describe the
expected relationships between variables within a theory.
These relationships can be causal, correlational, or predictive.
Propositions can be tested through experiments and statistical analyses - to assess their
validity and support.
Note that analysis without manipulation rarely provides the final answer.
|| Criteria of Good Theories ||
In scientific research, a hypothesis is formulated based on existing knowledge and serves as a
guide for conducting experiments to test its validity.
A well-constructed hypothesis is clear, testable, and can be supported or refuted through
empirical evidence.
It plays a crucial role in the scientific method by helping researchers to make predictions and
draw conclusions based on evidence gathered during experiments.
Operationalized Variable – Concrete !
,In an experiment, we test hypotheses about operational definitions:
Independent / Explanatory variable
Dependent / Response variable
Mediating variable (explains relationship between IV and DV)
Moderating variable (changes relationship between IV and DV)
Mediator Hypothesis:
The effect of teacher quality on school achievement is mediated by motivation:
Better teacher quality results in higher motivation, which results in higher school
achievement.
When A exerts the same influence on B, even with the addition of C as a predictor, this implies
that the mediator hypothesis is incorrect.
If the impact of A on B weakens when C is included as a predictor, it indicates that C is at least
partly mediating the relationship between A and B.
Usually analyzed through: Multiple Regression Analysis.
Moderator Hypothesis = Subgroups ?
Moderator hypothesis: subgroups refer to the idea that a third variable, known as a moderator,
can influence the relationship between two other variables. In this case, the moderator being
considered is intelligence, and the variables being studied are motivation and school
achievement.
Motivation Low: No correlation between intelligence and achievement
Motivation High: IQ correlates with Achievement in school.
The motivation behind this hypothesis is to understand how different levels of motivation, high
and low, can impact the relationship between intelligence and school achievement. The
hypothesis suggests that when motivation is high, intelligence is positively correlated with school
achievement. However, when motivation is low, there is no correlation between intelligence and
achievement.
If the moderator (intelligence) interacts with one of the variables (motivation or school
achievement), such as suggesting that intelligence moderates the relationship between
motivation and achievement, it indicates that intelligence plays a role in influencing how
motivation affects school performance.
In a moderator analysis, statistical methods such as ANOVA/ANCOVA or multiple regression are
typically used to examine the interaction between the moderator and the variables being studied.
, Contrasting Theories Vs. Hypothesis:
Key Terms:
Model refers to a representation or framework that is based on a theory but is more concrete and
measurable.
Orthogonal means that each variable in the model has a separate and independent influence,
meaning they are not interrelated or dependent on each other.
How to Formulate a Research Question [RQ → hypothesis]
1. Select a Topic:
Is this topic interesting? – Does this topic motivate you?
Formal Background – previous research, existing theories, available methods.
Informal Knowledge – based on your own experience.
It this topic feasible to study? – Appropriate equipments/money/sufficient time?
2. Literature Review:
How should we search/ select / read/ summarize articles ??
(1) Article Selection Criteria:
= Memorize this by heart:
|| Lecture 1:
Research Methods can be defined as:
The collection of tools that allow one to update beliefs through rational and empirical means.
In the social sciences this involves formulating theories that allow one to describe, explain,
predict (and often control) human behavior.
Empirical Cycle: From theory to data and back!!
Is it an Endless Loop or Are Theories Eventually Abandoned if Proven False?
Abstract: The constructs and relationships described in a theory are abstract and cannot be
directly measured. Researchers must use indirect methods and operational definitions to
empirically measure these constructs.
Operationalization: Although theories are abstract, they can be operationalized. This means
that the abstract concepts within a theory can be translated into specific, measurable
variables for empirical testing.
Empirical Basis: The formulation of theories is grounded in empirical evidence and prior studies.
They synthesize existing knowledge to explain observed phenomena.
Conceptual Framework: Theories are often conceptual, meaning they provide a broad framework
for understanding phenomena. This broad framework can guide researchers in developing more
specific, testable hypotheses.
|| Components of Theories ||
,1. Assumptions (often implicit): Assumptions are fundamental beliefs or assertions that underlie a
theory – might not always be explicitly stated but serve as the foundation upon which the theory
is built.
2. Variables – conceptual and operationalized constructs: Variables are the key elements within a
theory that are studied and measured to understand their relationships and effects.
Conceptual variables = Are abstract ideas or concepts that are not directly observable but
are theorized to exist – For example, "intelligence" or "happiness" are conceptual variables”.
Operationalized variables The specific, measurable representations of conceptual variables.
They define how the conceptual variables will be observed or measured in empirical research.
For example, in a study of stress in students during a university semester, a conceptual
definition would describe what is meant by 'stress'. While an operational definition
would describe how the 'stress' would be measured.
3. Propositions – relationships between variables: Are statements or hypotheses that describe the
expected relationships between variables within a theory.
These relationships can be causal, correlational, or predictive.
Propositions can be tested through experiments and statistical analyses - to assess their
validity and support.
Note that analysis without manipulation rarely provides the final answer.
|| Criteria of Good Theories ||
In scientific research, a hypothesis is formulated based on existing knowledge and serves as a
guide for conducting experiments to test its validity.
A well-constructed hypothesis is clear, testable, and can be supported or refuted through
empirical evidence.
It plays a crucial role in the scientific method by helping researchers to make predictions and
draw conclusions based on evidence gathered during experiments.
Operationalized Variable – Concrete !
,In an experiment, we test hypotheses about operational definitions:
Independent / Explanatory variable
Dependent / Response variable
Mediating variable (explains relationship between IV and DV)
Moderating variable (changes relationship between IV and DV)
Mediator Hypothesis:
The effect of teacher quality on school achievement is mediated by motivation:
Better teacher quality results in higher motivation, which results in higher school
achievement.
When A exerts the same influence on B, even with the addition of C as a predictor, this implies
that the mediator hypothesis is incorrect.
If the impact of A on B weakens when C is included as a predictor, it indicates that C is at least
partly mediating the relationship between A and B.
Usually analyzed through: Multiple Regression Analysis.
Moderator Hypothesis = Subgroups ?
Moderator hypothesis: subgroups refer to the idea that a third variable, known as a moderator,
can influence the relationship between two other variables. In this case, the moderator being
considered is intelligence, and the variables being studied are motivation and school
achievement.
Motivation Low: No correlation between intelligence and achievement
Motivation High: IQ correlates with Achievement in school.
The motivation behind this hypothesis is to understand how different levels of motivation, high
and low, can impact the relationship between intelligence and school achievement. The
hypothesis suggests that when motivation is high, intelligence is positively correlated with school
achievement. However, when motivation is low, there is no correlation between intelligence and
achievement.
If the moderator (intelligence) interacts with one of the variables (motivation or school
achievement), such as suggesting that intelligence moderates the relationship between
motivation and achievement, it indicates that intelligence plays a role in influencing how
motivation affects school performance.
In a moderator analysis, statistical methods such as ANOVA/ANCOVA or multiple regression are
typically used to examine the interaction between the moderator and the variables being studied.
, Contrasting Theories Vs. Hypothesis:
Key Terms:
Model refers to a representation or framework that is based on a theory but is more concrete and
measurable.
Orthogonal means that each variable in the model has a separate and independent influence,
meaning they are not interrelated or dependent on each other.
How to Formulate a Research Question [RQ → hypothesis]
1. Select a Topic:
Is this topic interesting? – Does this topic motivate you?
Formal Background – previous research, existing theories, available methods.
Informal Knowledge – based on your own experience.
It this topic feasible to study? – Appropriate equipments/money/sufficient time?
2. Literature Review:
How should we search/ select / read/ summarize articles ??
(1) Article Selection Criteria:
