Issues and Debates in Psychology
GENDER BIAS
Gender Bias results when one gender is treated Alpha Bias:
less favourably than the other, often referred to This occurs when the
as sexism and it has a range of consequences differences between men and
including: women are exaggerated.
• Scientifically misleading Therefore, stereotypically male
• Upholding stereotypical assumptions and female characteristics may
• Validating sex discrimination be emphasised.
Evaluation Beta Bias:
Alpha Bias: This occurs when the
• Has led to some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and differences between men and
valuation of 'feminine qualities'. women are minimised. This
• Has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain often happens when findings
male qualities such has aggression and individualism as desirable, obtained from men are applied
adaptive and universal. to women without additional
• Focus on differences between genders leads to the implication of validation.
similarity within genders, this ignores many ways women differ
from each other. Androcentrism:
• Can sustain prejudices and stereotypes. Taking male thinking/behaviour
Beta Bias: as normal regarding female
• Makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to thinking/behaviour as deviant,
equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to services. inferior, abnormal, 'other' when
• Draws attention away from the differences in power between men it is different.
and women.
• Is considered as an egalitarian approach (people are equal) but it
results in major misinterpretations of both genders. Consequences of Gender Bias
Kitzinger argues questions
about sex differences aren’t
Role of the father Bowlby’s monotopic theory: just scientific, but political. So
in attachment: It is a socially sensitive idea because it has gender differences distorted to
It suggests men major implications for the lifestyle choices of maintain the status quo of male
can’t be primary mothers make when their children are young. power.
attachment figures Some believe it puts a terrible burden on • Women kept out male
- risks reinforcing mothers to stay at home or take the blame if dominant universities.
gender stereotypes anything goes wrong with the rest of the • Women were oppressed.
and restricting the child’s life. This was not Bowlby’s intention, he • Women stereotypes
role of men in wanted to boost the status of mothers by (Bowlby).
child-rearing. emphasising the importance of their role.
Feminists argue that although
Beta bias links Freud: Ainsworth’s gender differences are minimal,
to the fight or The central concept of penis Strange they are used against women
flight response: envy means that they’re Situation: to maintain male power.
research on the defined psychologically by the The original
flight and fight fact that they are not men. He study Judgements about an
response is also argued that because they involved only individual women’s ability are
exclusively on do not experience castration mothers and made on the basis of average
male animals anxiety girls are under less their infants, differences between the sexes
(because female pressure to identify with the and it or biased sex-role stereotypes,
hormones same sex parent. This assumed the and this also had the effect of
fluctuate) and identification is critical mother was lowering women’s self esteem;
apply the findings according to Freud for moral the main making them, rather than men,
equally to both development and led to attachment think they have to improve
men and women. women being morally inferior. figure. themselves (Tavris 1993).
, Issues and Debates in Psychology
CULTURE BIAS
Culture can be described as all General Background:
the knowledge and values In order to fulfil its aspiration of explaining human thinking and
shared by a society. Cultures behaviour, psychology must address the huge diversity in people
may differ from one another in around the globe. Each individuals behaviour is shaped by a huge
many ways, so that the findings number of factors, including their genes, upbringing and individual
of psychological research differences. Psychologists should always attempt to account for
conducted in one culture may the ways in which culture affects thinking and behaviour.
not apply directly to another.
Psychology is predominately a white, Euro-American enterprise.
• 64% of psychological researchers are from the US.
• 90% of studies have US participants.
• Samples are usually white middle class.
Psychologists may overlook the importance of cultural diversity in
understanding human behaviour, resulting in theories that are
scientifically inadequate.
Emics Etics Ainsworth’s Strange Situation:
• An emic construct is one • An etic construct is a Its not appropriate for assessing children
that is applied to only theoretical idea that is from non-western populations. The original
one cultural group. assumed to apply in all study only used American, middle class
• An emic approach refers cultural groups. white, home reared infants and mothers.
to the investigation of a • They are factors that are
culture from within itself. universal to all, and apply Takahshi aimed to see whether the strange
• It has ecological validity to all cultures. situation is valid for other cultures. He found
as the findings are less • Etic constructs assume no children in the avoidant insecure stage,
distorted by a mismatch that most behaviour is as Japanese children as taught that such
between the cultures of common to humans but behaviour is impolite. They also experience
the researchers are the cultural factors influence less separation so found it more stressful.
culture being the development or
investigated. display of this behaviour. IQ Testing and Research:
• Cultural bias can occur • Making the assumption An example of an etic approach which
when a researcher that behaviour are produces bias might be the imposition of IQ
assumes than an emic universal can lead to tests designed within one culture on another
construct is actually etic. imposed etics. culture. If a test is made to test a Europeans
understanding of what intelligence is, it may
Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism
not be a valid measurement for Asia
• It occurs when a • Its the principle of
intelligence. IQ tests developed in the west,
researcher assumes their regarding the beliefs,
so non-westerns may have a disadvantage.
own culture is natural or values, and practices
right. of a culture from the
• They use their own viewpoint of the culture Consequences of culture bias:
ethnic group to evaluate itself. Nobles argues that western psychology has
and make judgements of • It is sometimes been tool of oppression and dominate. It
others from other practiced to avoid has made it difficult for psychologists to
groups. cultural bias in separate the behaviour they have observed
• They may see other research, as well as to from the context in which the observed it in.
cultures in a negative avoid judging another
light. culture by the Reducing culture bias:
• This becomes racism standards of ones own Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid
when other cultures are culture. psychology of cultural bias and racism.
denigrated of their • Aims to avoid
traditions. ethnocentrism.
GENDER BIAS
Gender Bias results when one gender is treated Alpha Bias:
less favourably than the other, often referred to This occurs when the
as sexism and it has a range of consequences differences between men and
including: women are exaggerated.
• Scientifically misleading Therefore, stereotypically male
• Upholding stereotypical assumptions and female characteristics may
• Validating sex discrimination be emphasised.
Evaluation Beta Bias:
Alpha Bias: This occurs when the
• Has led to some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and differences between men and
valuation of 'feminine qualities'. women are minimised. This
• Has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain often happens when findings
male qualities such has aggression and individualism as desirable, obtained from men are applied
adaptive and universal. to women without additional
• Focus on differences between genders leads to the implication of validation.
similarity within genders, this ignores many ways women differ
from each other. Androcentrism:
• Can sustain prejudices and stereotypes. Taking male thinking/behaviour
Beta Bias: as normal regarding female
• Makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to thinking/behaviour as deviant,
equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to services. inferior, abnormal, 'other' when
• Draws attention away from the differences in power between men it is different.
and women.
• Is considered as an egalitarian approach (people are equal) but it
results in major misinterpretations of both genders. Consequences of Gender Bias
Kitzinger argues questions
about sex differences aren’t
Role of the father Bowlby’s monotopic theory: just scientific, but political. So
in attachment: It is a socially sensitive idea because it has gender differences distorted to
It suggests men major implications for the lifestyle choices of maintain the status quo of male
can’t be primary mothers make when their children are young. power.
attachment figures Some believe it puts a terrible burden on • Women kept out male
- risks reinforcing mothers to stay at home or take the blame if dominant universities.
gender stereotypes anything goes wrong with the rest of the • Women were oppressed.
and restricting the child’s life. This was not Bowlby’s intention, he • Women stereotypes
role of men in wanted to boost the status of mothers by (Bowlby).
child-rearing. emphasising the importance of their role.
Feminists argue that although
Beta bias links Freud: Ainsworth’s gender differences are minimal,
to the fight or The central concept of penis Strange they are used against women
flight response: envy means that they’re Situation: to maintain male power.
research on the defined psychologically by the The original
flight and fight fact that they are not men. He study Judgements about an
response is also argued that because they involved only individual women’s ability are
exclusively on do not experience castration mothers and made on the basis of average
male animals anxiety girls are under less their infants, differences between the sexes
(because female pressure to identify with the and it or biased sex-role stereotypes,
hormones same sex parent. This assumed the and this also had the effect of
fluctuate) and identification is critical mother was lowering women’s self esteem;
apply the findings according to Freud for moral the main making them, rather than men,
equally to both development and led to attachment think they have to improve
men and women. women being morally inferior. figure. themselves (Tavris 1993).
, Issues and Debates in Psychology
CULTURE BIAS
Culture can be described as all General Background:
the knowledge and values In order to fulfil its aspiration of explaining human thinking and
shared by a society. Cultures behaviour, psychology must address the huge diversity in people
may differ from one another in around the globe. Each individuals behaviour is shaped by a huge
many ways, so that the findings number of factors, including their genes, upbringing and individual
of psychological research differences. Psychologists should always attempt to account for
conducted in one culture may the ways in which culture affects thinking and behaviour.
not apply directly to another.
Psychology is predominately a white, Euro-American enterprise.
• 64% of psychological researchers are from the US.
• 90% of studies have US participants.
• Samples are usually white middle class.
Psychologists may overlook the importance of cultural diversity in
understanding human behaviour, resulting in theories that are
scientifically inadequate.
Emics Etics Ainsworth’s Strange Situation:
• An emic construct is one • An etic construct is a Its not appropriate for assessing children
that is applied to only theoretical idea that is from non-western populations. The original
one cultural group. assumed to apply in all study only used American, middle class
• An emic approach refers cultural groups. white, home reared infants and mothers.
to the investigation of a • They are factors that are
culture from within itself. universal to all, and apply Takahshi aimed to see whether the strange
• It has ecological validity to all cultures. situation is valid for other cultures. He found
as the findings are less • Etic constructs assume no children in the avoidant insecure stage,
distorted by a mismatch that most behaviour is as Japanese children as taught that such
between the cultures of common to humans but behaviour is impolite. They also experience
the researchers are the cultural factors influence less separation so found it more stressful.
culture being the development or
investigated. display of this behaviour. IQ Testing and Research:
• Cultural bias can occur • Making the assumption An example of an etic approach which
when a researcher that behaviour are produces bias might be the imposition of IQ
assumes than an emic universal can lead to tests designed within one culture on another
construct is actually etic. imposed etics. culture. If a test is made to test a Europeans
understanding of what intelligence is, it may
Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism
not be a valid measurement for Asia
• It occurs when a • Its the principle of
intelligence. IQ tests developed in the west,
researcher assumes their regarding the beliefs,
so non-westerns may have a disadvantage.
own culture is natural or values, and practices
right. of a culture from the
• They use their own viewpoint of the culture Consequences of culture bias:
ethnic group to evaluate itself. Nobles argues that western psychology has
and make judgements of • It is sometimes been tool of oppression and dominate. It
others from other practiced to avoid has made it difficult for psychologists to
groups. cultural bias in separate the behaviour they have observed
• They may see other research, as well as to from the context in which the observed it in.
cultures in a negative avoid judging another
light. culture by the Reducing culture bias:
• This becomes racism standards of ones own Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid
when other cultures are culture. psychology of cultural bias and racism.
denigrated of their • Aims to avoid
traditions. ethnocentrism.
