INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 1 STUDY GUIDE 1 |CHAPTER 1-8| 100% VERRIFIED

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 1 STUDY GUIDE 1 |CHAPTER 1-8| 100% VERRIFIED CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Objective 1.1 Define psychology: The study of behavior and mental process. Key Terms Psychology: The science that studies behavior and the psychological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems. Exercises 1. Put a check mark by each statement that is true regarding psychology. X Psychologists study human behavior. X Psychologists study animal behavior. X Psychologists study emotions and mental processes. Psychology and "common sense" lead to the same conclusions about behavior and mental processes. Psychology is not a science. Objective 1.2 Define the scientific method, and explain how it is used in psychology. Key Terms Scientific Method: The orderly systematic procedure that researchers follow as they identify a research problem, design a study, to investigate the problem, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions, and communicate their findings. Step 1: Observe &Theorize • A theory is an explanation that organizes separate pieces of information in a coherent way. Researchers generally develop a theory only after they have collected a lot of evidence and made sure their research results can be reproduced by others. Step 2: Formulate a Hypothesis • A hypothesis is a testable prediction of what will happen given a certain set of conditions. Psychologists test a hypothesis by using a specific research method, such as naturalistic observation, a case study, a survey, or an experiment. Step 3: Design a Study Step 4: Collect Data Step 5: Apply Results to the Hypothesis • Research is replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results. When psychologists report what they have found through their research, they also describe in detail how they made their discoveries. This way, other psychologists can repeat the research to see if they can replicate the findings. Exercises 1. What is the main purpose of the scientific method? The scientific method is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. Researchers make observations to describe and measure behavior. 2. The steps of the scientific method are (1) identify a problem or research question, (2) design a study, (3) collect data, (4) analyze data, (5) draw conclusions, and (6) communicate findings. Identify the step associated with each of the following activities: 3 Dr. Lopez noted "absent" or "present" by each student's name on his class roll at each class meeting. He recorded students' exam scores on his roll sheet as well. 5 Dr. Lopez hypothesized that students who consistently attend class get higher grades than those who are absent more often. 6 Dr. Lopez published the results of his study in the Journal of Community College Teaching. 4_ Dr. Lopez calculated the correlation between his students' rates of absence and their exam scores and found that the two variables were positively associated. 1_ Dr. Lopez planned to track students' attendance and exam scores and to correlate these two variables at the end of the semester. 2_ Dr. Lopez inferred that the data he collected supported his hypothesis regarding the relationship between attendance and exam scores. Objective 1.3 Describe the major schools of thought and theoretical perspectives in psychology. Key Terms Behaviorism: The school of psychology that views observerable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter for psychology and emphasizes the key role of environment as a determinant of behavior. • The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2). Psychoanalysis: Freud's theory of personality that attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts, the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. Humanistic psychology: A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their person (psychological health.) and their potential for personal growth. • Positive Psychology - The scientific study of psychological characteristics that enable individuals and communities to thrive in the face of adversity. Cognitive Psychology: The branch of psychology that sees humans as active participants in their environment and is concerned with the scientific study of the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. In short, cognitive psychology is concerned with the scientific study of the mind and mental processes. • Gestalt Psychology - The school of psychology that emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units and that the perceived whole is more than the sum of its parts. • Information-Processing Theory - An approach to the study of mental structures and processes that uses the computer as a model for human thinking. Evolutionary psychology: The school of psychology that studies how human behaviors required for survival have adapted in the face of environmental pressures over the long course of evolution. Biological psychology: The school of psychology that looks for links between specific behaviors and equally specific biological processes that often help explain individual differences. • Neuroscience - An interdisciplinary field that combines the work of psychologists, biologists, biochemists, medical researchers, and others in the study of the structure and function of the nervous system. Sociocultural Approach: The view that social and cultural factors may be just as powerful as evolutionary and physiological factors in affecting behavior and mental processing and that these factors must be understood when interpreting the behavior of others. Exercises 1. Fill in the chart below. School of Thought Important Theorist(s) Main Ideas Behaviorism John b Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B F Skinner, Bandura Founder: John Watson & Ivan Pavlov Reason founded: Deemed introspection as unscientific Modern Concept: The role of environment in shaping and controlling behavior (Environmental factors) Impact on modern psychology: helped make psychology a natural science, rather than a branch of philosophy Psychoanalysi s Sigmund Freud Main Idea: Tries to bring unconscious thoughts and emotions to consciousness. It is therefore an "insight-oriented therapy." Modern Concept: The role of unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences in determining behavior and thought. (Emotions, unconscious motivations, early childhood experiences) Humanistic psychology Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers Main Idea: Humans are basically good and inherently motivated to self-actualize Modern Concept: The importance of an individual’s subjective experience as a key to understanding his or her behavior. (Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve self-actualization) Cognitive psychology Jean Piaget Gestalt: Gestalt, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler Main Idea: School of thought that focuses on how we take in, process, store, and retrieve information. Modern Concept: The role of mental processes—perception, thinking, and memory—that underlie behavior (Mental processes) Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units and that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Information processing approach: -Mental processes are similar to a computer -Information processes through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one at a time. Evolutionary psychology Charles Darwin, Leda Cosmides, John, Tooby, David Buss Main Idea: The discipline that considers psychological and behavioral phenomena as products of natural selection. Explores the implications of Darwinian theory for explaining behavior. Modern Concept: The roles of inherited tendencies that have proven adaptive in humans (Inherited traits that enhance adaptability) Biological Psychology (Physiological Psychology) Neuroscience: Krump Main Idea: Emphasizes the role of biological process and structure, as well as heredity, in explaining behavior (Biological structures, processes, heredity) Sociocultural approach Lesley Lambright and Gerald Patterson Main Idea: Emphasizes the social and cultural influences on behavior (Social and cultural variables) Objective 1.4 Define and explain the differences among the various descriptive research methods. Key Terms Naturalistic Observation: A descriptive research method in which researchers observe and record behavior in its natural setting, without attempting to influence or control it. Laboratory Observation: A descriptive research method in which behavior is studied in a laboratory setting. Case study: A single individual or a small number of persons are studied in great depth, usually over an extended period. A case study involves the use of observations, interviews, and sometimes psychological testing. Survey: A descriptive research method in which researchers use interviews and/or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people. Correlation Method: A research method used to determine the relationship (correlation) between two events, characteristics, or behaviors. Correlation coefficient: A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; ranges from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). Exercises. Method Uses Limitations Naturalisti c observatio n 1.) Gives the opportunity to study behavior in normal settings, where it occurs more naturally & spontaneously than it does under artificial and contrived laboratory conditions. Sometimes, naturalistic observation is the only feasible way to study behavior. 2.) It can be a good place to start when little is known about the phenomena under study 1.) Researchers must wait for events to occur; they cannot speed up or slow down the process. And because they have no control over the situation, researchers are unable to draw conclusions 2.) Observer bias, which is a distortion in researchers’ observations. Observer bias can result when researcher’s expectations about a situation cause them to see what they expect to see or to make incorrect inferences about what they observe. 3) Observational data are often difficult to quantify for statistical analyses. Laboratory observatio n 1.) Researchers can exert more control and use more precise equipment to measure responses. 2.) Can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later. 1.) Laboratory behavior may not accurately reflect real-world behavior. Conclusions based on laboratory findings may not generalize beyond the walls of the laboratory itself and they can be expensive. Case study 1.) Their purpose is to provide a detailed description of some behavior or disorder. 2.) This method is particularly appropriate for studying people who have uncommon psychological or physiological disorders or brain injuries. 3.) Can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later. 1.) Researchers cannot establish the cause of behavior observed in a case study. 2.) Observer bias is a potential problem. 3.) So few individuals are studied, researchers do not know how generalizable their findings may be to larger groups or to different cultures. 4.) Data collection can be relatively easy, saving time and money. 5.) Researchers can gather data on difficult-to-observe aspects of behaviors Survey Can provide accurate information about large numbers of people. Can track changes in attitudes and behavior over time. 3.) Responses may be inaccurate. Sample may not be representative. 2.) Characteristics of the interviewer may influence responses. 3.) Can be costly and time consuming. Correlation Method 1.) Can assess strength of the relationship between variables and can often be done quickly. 2.) Provides basis for prediction. Correlational studies are also useful when it is impossible, for ethical reasons, to study variables of interest using more direct methods. 3.) Precise control over variables can eliminate alternative explanations for findings 1.) Does not demonstrate cause and effect. 2.) Confounding of variables must be avoided 2. Classify each of the following as an example of (a) naturalistic observation, (b) laboratory observation, (c) case study, (d) survey, or (e) correlation. a. A professor compared his students' attendance rates to their grades. She found that students with fewer absences tended to get higher grades. Correlation. b. Psychologists studying aggression in early childhood found that an average of four instances of hitting or pushing occurred during each hour that they spent watching a group of two-year-olds interact in a day-care classroom. Naturalistic Observation c. A telephone poll found that 37% of respondents had a favorable opinion of "Sparkle" toothpaste. Survey d. A hidden camera recorded the behavior of male and female research participants who were asked to wait for a long period of time in a room in which a researcher had placed a stack of pornographic magazines. Laboratory Observation e. A psychologist who was interested in job satisfaction gathered in-depth, detailed information about organizations whose workers reported being highly satisfied with their jobs. Case Study 3. Why does correlation fail to prove causation? Just because two variables are empirically related does not mean that a causal relation exists. Objective 1.5 Define representative sample and explain why it is important. A representative sample is a sample that resembles the total population. It is important to use a sampling method that produces representative samples when your goal is to understand the characteristics of a population based on study of a sample (i.e., when you want to directly generalize from your sample to your population). Key Terms Sample: A part of a population that is studied to reach conclusions about the entire population. Population: The entire group of interest to researchers to which they wish to generalize their findings; the group from which a sample is selected. Representative sample: A small quantity of something that accurately reflects the larger entity; it includes important subgroups in the same proportions as they are found in that population. Exercises 1. Barry reached into his bag of M&Ms and pulled out three pieces of candy, each of which was red. All of the M&Ms in Barry's bag are the (sample/population) of M&Ms. The three that he took out are the (sample/population). 2. Each bag of M&Ms has candies of several colors. Thus, the three red M&Ms that Barry took out of his bag (are/are not) a representative sample. 3. Why are researchers concerned about the representativeness of the samples in their studies? a. They don't want to offend anyone. b. They hope to generalize the findings of their studies to populations of interest. c. Representative samples are usually large enough to ensure statistical significance. d. Scientific journals will not publish a study unless the sample is representative. Objective 1.6 Describe the experimental method, state its advantages and disadvantages, and distinguish between independent and dependent variables. Key Terms Experimental Method: The only research method that can be used to identify cause–effect relationships between two or more conditions or variables. Random assignment of participants to groups. Manipulation of the independent variable(s) and measurement of the effect on the dependent variable. Causal Hypothesis: A prediction about a cause–effect relationship between two or more variables. Variable: Any condition or factor that can be manipulated, controlled, or measured. Independent Variable: In an experiment, a factor or condition that is deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition. Dependent Variable: The factor or condition that is measured at the end of an experiment and is presumed to vary as a result of the manipulations of the independent variable(s). Experimental Group: In an experiment, the group that is exposed to an independent variable( a special treatment) Control Group: Subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental groups and used for purposes of comparison Random Assignment: The design of a study such that all subjects have an equal chance if being assigned to any group or condition. Assist in controlling selection bias Exercises 1. What is the primary advantage of the experimental method? Enables identification of cause–effect relationships. You can see the difference occur between the controlled subject and the second subject. The differences can be noted and used to show whether the experiment worked or not. List of Advantages 1. Control over variables 2. Determination of cause and effect relationship is easy 3. Provides better results List of Disadvantages of Experimental Research 1. Can’t always do experiments 2. Creates artificial situations 3. Subject to human error 4. Participants can be influenced by environment 5. Manipulation of variables isn’t seen as completely objective 6. Can takes a lot of time and can be expensive. 7. Laboratory setting may inhibit natural behavior of participants. Findings may not be generalizable to the real world. In some cases, experiment is unethical or impossible. 2. Read the scenario and answer the questions that follow it. In a laboratory study of sleep deprivation, researchers employed a variety of techniques to keep volunteers awake for variable amounts of time. One group of participants was kept awake for 24 hours, and the other was kept awake for 48 hours. During periods of forced wakefulness, participants were required to engage verbal learning tasks such as memorizing the definitions of obscure English words. At the conclusion of the period of forced wakefulness, participants were allowed to sleep for as long as they wanted to. When participants awakened, researchers tested them on the learning tasks they completed during the periods of forced wakefulness. The researchers discovered that participants who were deprived of sleep for 48 hours recalled less than those who had been forced to remain awake for 24 hours. 1a. What is the independent variable? The amount of time they were kept awake (24 and 48hours) 1b. What is the dependent variable? The amount of time the subjects would end up sleeping afterwards 1c. What is the control group? Forced wakefulness 1d. What is/are the experimental group(s)? Memorizing the definitions of obscure English word 3. Why is random assignment critical to the experimental method? To get the best in an experimental method result you want the most random subjects because it gives you a broader outlook on your results which are more accurate. Random assignment ensures that participants in a cause and effect study are unbiased as it prevents people’s history from causing an extraneous variable within the experiment. Only for ethical reasons should it be changed. Objective 1.7 Explain the rationale behind placebo-controlled experiments. Key Terms Placebo Double-Blind Technique Placebo Effect Experimenter Bias Exercises 1. Why do researchers use placebos and double-blind designs? Researchers use placebos to test the effectiveness of the drug trail. Because of Bias of Participants and the Experimenter’s Bias. When the researcher's preconceived ideas in some way influence the participant’s behavior and/or the interpretation of experimental results-a self-fulling prophecy. To eliminate experimental bias experimenters, use Double-blind Technique. 2. Read the scenario and answer the questions. Sam's psychology professor, Dr. Smith, recruited him to serve as a research assistant. Sam's job was to teach study participants a new strategy for studying textbook material. Experimental group participants were supposed to be taught the new strategy, while control group participants were to be told that they could increase their test scores by holding their textbooks at a particular angle when reading. Each group was allowed to practice the techniques they were taught on a chapter in a psychology textbook, after which Sam tested them over what they had studied. Dr. Smith was surprised to discover that the control group scored higher on the tests than the experimental group did. (A) Did Dr. Smith's design include a placebo? Yes (B) If so, what was the placebo? How the students were told to hold the textbook (C) What term refers to the outcome of Dr. Smith's study? The placebo effect (D) Would it be correct to conclude that the procedure that was taught to the control group is a useful study strategy? If not, what is the correct conclusion? The correct conclusion is that tec ique will “work “as efficiently as the person believes it is working . Basically, that if one believes e rely that something will work most likely it will. Participants expectations influenced the outcome