CRIMINOLOGY CHAPTERS 1-6 Q & A

CRIMINOLOGY CHAPTERS 1-6 Q & A mandatory sentences A statutory requirement that a certain penalty shall be carried out in all cases of conviction for a specified offense or series of offenses. misdemeanor A minor crime usually punished by a short jail term and/or a fine. Mosaic Code The laws of the ancient Israelites, found in the Old Testament of the Judeo-Christian Bible. penology Subarea of criminology that focuses on the correction and control of criminal offenders. positivism The branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic forces. precedent A rule derived from previous judicial decisions and applied to future cases; the basis of common law. rational choice theory (choice theory) The view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act. rehabilitation Treatment of criminal offenders that is aimed at preventing future criminal behavior. reliable measure A measure that produces consistent results from one measurement to another. scientific method The use of verifiable principles and procedures for the systematic acquisition of knowledge. Typically involves formulating a problem, creating hypotheses, and collecting data, through observation and experiment, to verify the hypotheses. social process theory The view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. social structure theory The view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime. socialization Process of human development and enculturation. Socialization is influenced by key social processes and institutions. sociological criminology Approach to criminology, based on the work of Quetelet and Durkheim, that focuses on the relationship between social factors and crime. statutory crimes Crimes defined by legislative bodies in response to changing social conditions, public opinion, and custom. trait theory The view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. utilitarianism The view that people's behavior is motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. valid measure A measure that actually measures what it purports to measure; a measure that is factual. victimology The study of the victim's role in criminal events. white-collar crime Illegal activities of people and institutions whose acknowledged purpose is profit through legitimate business transactions. White-collar crimes can involve theft, embezzlement, fraud, market manipulation, restraint of trade, and false advertising. aging out Phrase used to express the fact that people commit less crime as they mature. chronic offenders (career criminals) The small group of persistent offenders who account for a majority of all criminal offenses. cleared crimes Crimes are considered cleared when at least one person is arrested, charged, and turned over to the court for prosecution or when some element beyond police control (such as the offender having left the country) precludes the physical arrest of an offender. cohort A group of individuals that have a shared experience over time early onset The view that repeat offenders begin their criminal careers at a very young age. expressive crimes Offenses committed not for profit or gain but to vent rage, anger, or frustration. instrumental crimes Offenses designed to improve the financial or social position of the criminal. liberal feminist theory A view of crime that suggests that the social and economic role of women in society controls their crime rates. masculinity hypothesis The view that women who commit crimes have biological and psychological traits similar to those of men. Meta-analysis A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) The ongoing victimization study conducted jointly by the Justice Department and the U.S. Census Bureau that surveys victims about their experiences with law violation. National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) Program that requires local police agencies to provide a brief account of each incident and arrest within 22 crime patterns, including incident, victim, and offender information. neurotransmitter A chemical substance, such as dopamine, that transmits nerve impulses from one neuron to another (neurons are specialized cells that make up the body's nervous system). Part I crimes The eight most serious offenses included in the UCR: murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, arson, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. Part II crimes All other crimes, aside from the eight Part I crimes, included in the UCR arrest data. Part II crimes include arson, drug offenses, sex crimes, and vandalism, among others. population All people who share a particular characteristic, such as all high school students or all police officers. racial threat theory As the size of the black population increases, the perceived threat to the white population increases, resulting in a greater amount of social control imposed on blacks. retrospective cohort study A study that uses an intact cohort of known offenders and looks back into their early life experiences by checking their educational, family, police, and hospital records. sampling Selecting a limited number of people for study as representative of a larger group. self-report survey A research approach that requires subjects to reveal their own participation in delinquent or criminal acts. systematic review A review of the literature, in which all available research studies on a particular topic are identified, analysed and synthesised Uniform Crime Report (UCR) Large database, compiled by the FBI, of crimes reported and arrests made each year throughout the United States. three strikes laws Laws that require offenders to serve life in prison after they are convicted of a third felony. active precipitation Aggressive or provocative behavior of victims that results in their victimization. capable guardians Effective deterrents to crime, such as police or watchful neighbors. compensation Financial aid awarded to crime victims to repay them for their loss and injuries; may cover medical bills, loss of wages, loss of future earnings, and/or counseling. crisis intervention Emergency counseling for crime victims. cycle of violence Victims of crime, especially victims of childhood abuse, are more likely to commit crimes themselves. deviant place theory The view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live.