RESEARCH METHODS
Doing Research in the Real World – David E Gray
Lecture 1 Theoretical Perspectives and Methodologies & Lecture 2 Conceptual Frameworks
Chapter 1 – Introduction
Research is ‘a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution’.
It can have a practical focus (applied research), or be concerned with clarifying, validating or building
a theory (basic research).
Basic vs applied research:
- Basic – purpose:
o Expand knowledge of social or organizational processes
o Develop universal principles
o Produce findings of significance and value to society
- Applied – purpose:
o Improve understanding of specific social or organizational problems
o Create solutions to social or organizational problems
o Develop findings of practical relevance to public and organizational stakeholders
Challenges of research in the real world:
- Broad fields of inquiry – often an interdisciplinary approach needed
- Need access to social settings or working environments where sponsors, gatekeepers or
stakeholder have their own agenda
- Research may be influenced because sponsors are in a field of competition
Systematical approach is needed.
A theory is ‘a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of
explaining and predicting phenomena’. A research often comprises an investigation into the
relationship between two (or more) variables. Literature review will help to investigate research on
the variables, and also helps to define the focus and scope of the research project.
Chapter 2 – Theoretical perspectives and research methodologies
Deduction begins with a universal view of a situation and works back to particulars, while induction
moves from fragmentary details to a connected view of a situation.
Deductive approach: organizational mission theory selection hypothesis operationalize
concepts testing examining outcomes modifying theory (if necessary).
The inductive approach starts with data collection after which data is analyzed to see if any patterns
emerge suggesting relationships between variables.
Inductive and deductive processes are often combined.
Ontology is the study of being; the nature of existence and what constitutes reality. While ontology
embodies understanding what is, epistemology tries to understand what it means to know. It
provides background for deciding what kinds of knowledge are legitimate and adequate. Objective
epistemology holds that reality exists independently of consciousness (there is an objective reality
out there), and research is about discovering this objective truth. Positivism is closely linked, and
argues that reality exists external to the researcher and must be investigated through rigorous
,process of scientific inquiry. In contract, constructivism rejects this view; truth and meaning do not
exist is some external world, but are created by the subject’s interactions with the world; meaning is
constructed not discovered. Both are based upon being ontology. Subjectivism implies meaning is
imposed on the object by the subject; construction of meaning from within.
Theoretical perspectives:
- Positivism: social world exists externally to the researchers, and its properties can be measured
directly through observation. Reality consists of what is available to the senses; inquiry should be
based upon scientific observation; natural and human sciences share common logical and
methodological principles, dealing with facts not values.
o Post-positivist world: alternative perspectives = emphasis on inferential statistics with its
focus on assigning probabilities that observed findings are correct
- Interpretivism: looks for ‘culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the social
life-world’. Closely linked to constructivism.
o Symbolic interactionism: human interaction with the world is mediated through the process
of meaning-making and interpretations
o Phenomenology: any attempt to understand social reality has to be grounded in people’s
experiences of that social reality.
o Realism: picture that science paints of the world is a true and accurate one.
o Hermeneutics: social reality is seen as socially constructed, rather than being rooted in
objective fact.
o Naturalistic inquiry: there are multiple constructed realities that can only be studied
holistically.
- Critical inquiry = meta-process of investigation which questions currently held values and
assumptions and challenges conventional social structures.
- Feminism = what a person knows is largely determined by their social position.
- Postmodernism.
- Pragmatism.
Research methodologies:
- Experimental and quasi-experimental research: researcher manipulates independent variable to
see its effect on dependent variable. Emphasis on: highly structured methods, generation of
initial hypotheses, control of variables, accurate measurement of outcomes, generalization from
samples to similar populations.
- Phenomenological research: relatively unstructured methods of data collection. Inductive. About
producing thick descriptions of people’s experiences and perspectives within their natural
setting. Emphasis on: inductive logic, seeking opinions and interpretations, relies on qualitative
analysis of data, not concerned with generalization.
- Analytical surveys: attempt to test a theory in the field through exploring association between
variables. Emphasizes: deductive approach, identification research population, drawing
representative sample, control of variables, generation of both qualitative and quantitative data,
generalizability of results.
- Action research: emphasis on promoting change; seeking information on attitudes and
perspectives. It involves both researchers and practitioners, can be highly structured, but also
quite unstructured.
- Heuristic inquiry: process begins with question or problem and finding answer to it. Deep
personal questioning of what researcher wish to research, inner workings of intuition, reviewing
all data from personal experiences, forming creative synthesis.
, Classification according to purpose:
- Exploratory studies: seek to explore what is happening and ask questions about it.
- Descriptive studies: provide picture of phenomenon as it naturally occurs.
- Explanatory studies: explain and account for descriptive information.
- Interpretive studies: explore people’s experiences and their view or perspectives of those
experiences.
Lecture 3 Research Agendas, Priority Settings
Chapter 3 – Selecting and planning research proposals and projects
Selection a research topic
Two ways of identifying a research topic: trough literature or directly from workplace or business
setting. A good topic is one that gives you free rein to maximize self-development. But it must also be
a subject that interests you. You must ensure the research subject is capable of meeting academic
requirements, and also capable of being linked to the appropriate academic theory. Getting sponsors
and/or network support is also important. Be sure research can be completed within the time
available. Selecting an issue that is within your capabilities is essential.
Topics to avoid
- Too big.
- Too trivial.
- Lacking in resource materials and people.
- Too technical.
- Dependent on completion of another project.
- Unethical.
Research questions and hypothesis
Literature review leads to one or more research questions. Research questions help to define an
investigation (purpose), establish boundaries, and provide direction. A hypothesis describes a
research question in testable format which predicts the nature of the answer.
Doing Research in the Real World – David E Gray
Lecture 1 Theoretical Perspectives and Methodologies & Lecture 2 Conceptual Frameworks
Chapter 1 – Introduction
Research is ‘a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution’.
It can have a practical focus (applied research), or be concerned with clarifying, validating or building
a theory (basic research).
Basic vs applied research:
- Basic – purpose:
o Expand knowledge of social or organizational processes
o Develop universal principles
o Produce findings of significance and value to society
- Applied – purpose:
o Improve understanding of specific social or organizational problems
o Create solutions to social or organizational problems
o Develop findings of practical relevance to public and organizational stakeholders
Challenges of research in the real world:
- Broad fields of inquiry – often an interdisciplinary approach needed
- Need access to social settings or working environments where sponsors, gatekeepers or
stakeholder have their own agenda
- Research may be influenced because sponsors are in a field of competition
Systematical approach is needed.
A theory is ‘a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of
explaining and predicting phenomena’. A research often comprises an investigation into the
relationship between two (or more) variables. Literature review will help to investigate research on
the variables, and also helps to define the focus and scope of the research project.
Chapter 2 – Theoretical perspectives and research methodologies
Deduction begins with a universal view of a situation and works back to particulars, while induction
moves from fragmentary details to a connected view of a situation.
Deductive approach: organizational mission theory selection hypothesis operationalize
concepts testing examining outcomes modifying theory (if necessary).
The inductive approach starts with data collection after which data is analyzed to see if any patterns
emerge suggesting relationships between variables.
Inductive and deductive processes are often combined.
Ontology is the study of being; the nature of existence and what constitutes reality. While ontology
embodies understanding what is, epistemology tries to understand what it means to know. It
provides background for deciding what kinds of knowledge are legitimate and adequate. Objective
epistemology holds that reality exists independently of consciousness (there is an objective reality
out there), and research is about discovering this objective truth. Positivism is closely linked, and
argues that reality exists external to the researcher and must be investigated through rigorous
,process of scientific inquiry. In contract, constructivism rejects this view; truth and meaning do not
exist is some external world, but are created by the subject’s interactions with the world; meaning is
constructed not discovered. Both are based upon being ontology. Subjectivism implies meaning is
imposed on the object by the subject; construction of meaning from within.
Theoretical perspectives:
- Positivism: social world exists externally to the researchers, and its properties can be measured
directly through observation. Reality consists of what is available to the senses; inquiry should be
based upon scientific observation; natural and human sciences share common logical and
methodological principles, dealing with facts not values.
o Post-positivist world: alternative perspectives = emphasis on inferential statistics with its
focus on assigning probabilities that observed findings are correct
- Interpretivism: looks for ‘culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the social
life-world’. Closely linked to constructivism.
o Symbolic interactionism: human interaction with the world is mediated through the process
of meaning-making and interpretations
o Phenomenology: any attempt to understand social reality has to be grounded in people’s
experiences of that social reality.
o Realism: picture that science paints of the world is a true and accurate one.
o Hermeneutics: social reality is seen as socially constructed, rather than being rooted in
objective fact.
o Naturalistic inquiry: there are multiple constructed realities that can only be studied
holistically.
- Critical inquiry = meta-process of investigation which questions currently held values and
assumptions and challenges conventional social structures.
- Feminism = what a person knows is largely determined by their social position.
- Postmodernism.
- Pragmatism.
Research methodologies:
- Experimental and quasi-experimental research: researcher manipulates independent variable to
see its effect on dependent variable. Emphasis on: highly structured methods, generation of
initial hypotheses, control of variables, accurate measurement of outcomes, generalization from
samples to similar populations.
- Phenomenological research: relatively unstructured methods of data collection. Inductive. About
producing thick descriptions of people’s experiences and perspectives within their natural
setting. Emphasis on: inductive logic, seeking opinions and interpretations, relies on qualitative
analysis of data, not concerned with generalization.
- Analytical surveys: attempt to test a theory in the field through exploring association between
variables. Emphasizes: deductive approach, identification research population, drawing
representative sample, control of variables, generation of both qualitative and quantitative data,
generalizability of results.
- Action research: emphasis on promoting change; seeking information on attitudes and
perspectives. It involves both researchers and practitioners, can be highly structured, but also
quite unstructured.
- Heuristic inquiry: process begins with question or problem and finding answer to it. Deep
personal questioning of what researcher wish to research, inner workings of intuition, reviewing
all data from personal experiences, forming creative synthesis.
, Classification according to purpose:
- Exploratory studies: seek to explore what is happening and ask questions about it.
- Descriptive studies: provide picture of phenomenon as it naturally occurs.
- Explanatory studies: explain and account for descriptive information.
- Interpretive studies: explore people’s experiences and their view or perspectives of those
experiences.
Lecture 3 Research Agendas, Priority Settings
Chapter 3 – Selecting and planning research proposals and projects
Selection a research topic
Two ways of identifying a research topic: trough literature or directly from workplace or business
setting. A good topic is one that gives you free rein to maximize self-development. But it must also be
a subject that interests you. You must ensure the research subject is capable of meeting academic
requirements, and also capable of being linked to the appropriate academic theory. Getting sponsors
and/or network support is also important. Be sure research can be completed within the time
available. Selecting an issue that is within your capabilities is essential.
Topics to avoid
- Too big.
- Too trivial.
- Lacking in resource materials and people.
- Too technical.
- Dependent on completion of another project.
- Unethical.
Research questions and hypothesis
Literature review leads to one or more research questions. Research questions help to define an
investigation (purpose), establish boundaries, and provide direction. A hypothesis describes a
research question in testable format which predicts the nature of the answer.
