THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INFLUENCE
Content
Chapter 1: Influence: definition, history and a model......................................................................................................................4
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
2. A brief history of influence research............................................................................................................................................4
Attitudes................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Advertising and influence......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Influence and ethics................................................................................................................................................................. 5
The model of this book............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Chapter 2: Attitudes and behaviour.................................................................................................................................................7
3. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
4. Attitudes, attitude formation and behavior..................................................................................................................................7
5. Reasoned and intuitive attitudes..................................................................................................................................................8
6. Measuring attitudes and behaviors..............................................................................................................................................9
Measuring reasoned attitudes and behavioral preferences.....................................................................................................9
Implicit attitude measures........................................................................................................................................................9
Measuring behavior............................................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3: Persuasion through argumentation..............................................................................................................................11
7. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................... 11
8. Argument and persuasion..........................................................................................................................................................11
Dual-process models and persuasion.....................................................................................................................................11
Figures of speech as persuasive tools in argumentation........................................................................................................12
9. Value-expectancy models and influence....................................................................................................................................13
Chapter 4: Cognitive heuristics.......................................................................................................................................................13
10. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................ 13
11. Cognitive heuristics in decision-making....................................................................................................................................14
The representative heuristic...................................................................................................................................................14
Availability Heuristic...............................................................................................................................................................14
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic......................................................................................................................................14
The affect heuristic................................................................................................................................................................. 14
More-is-better heuristic......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Chapter 5: Social Heuristics............................................................................................................................................................15
12. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
13. Types of social heuristics.......................................................................................................................................................... 15
1
, The authority heuristic...........................................................................................................................................................15
Likeability heuristic.................................................................................................................................................................15
Consistency heuristic.............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Reciprocity heuristic...............................................................................................................................................................16
Scarcity heuristic....................................................................................................................................................................17
Chapter 6: Emotions and influence................................................................................................................................................17
14. Mood and influence.................................................................................................................................................................17
15. From general mood to specific emotions.................................................................................................................................17
16. Positive emotions.....................................................................................................................................................................18
Happiness............................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Contentment.......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Nostalgia................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Hope....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Pride....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Trust....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
17. Negative emotions...................................................................................................................................................................19
Fear........................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Worry..................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Regret..................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Guilt and shame..................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Contempt, disgust and anger.................................................................................................................................................19
Chapter 7: Punishment and reward...............................................................................................................................................20
18. Reward, punishment and the brain..........................................................................................................................................20
19. Reward vs. Punishment............................................................................................................................................................20
Punishment............................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Reward................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
20. Social punishment and reward.................................................................................................................................................21
Naming and shaming..............................................................................................................................................................21
Naming and praising...............................................................................................................................................................21
Chapter 8: Automatic influences on attitudes and behavior..........................................................................................................22
21. Influence: unconscious versus automatic.................................................................................................................................22
22. Evaluative conditioning............................................................................................................................................................ 22
23. Mere exposure effect............................................................................................................................................................... 22
24. Priming..................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Subliminal influence............................................................................................................................................................... 23
25. Contrast effect..........................................................................................................................................................................23
2
, 26. Smells and music...................................................................................................................................................................... 23
27. Physical environment...............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 9 : Social norms and social comparison............................................................................................................................24
28. The development of norms......................................................................................................................................................24
Descriptive norms.................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Injunctive norms..................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Descriptive and injunctive norms combined..........................................................................................................................25
29. Social norms as campaign tool.................................................................................................................................................25
30. The influence of role models....................................................................................................................................................25
Chapter 10: Modifications of complex behavior............................................................................................................................26
31. Intervention mapping............................................................................................................................................................... 26
32. Implementation intentions.......................................................................................................................................................26
33. Ability and behavioral change..................................................................................................................................................26
34. Tailored interventions.............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 11: Back to the future.......................................................................................................................................................27
35. Influence and ethics.................................................................................................................................................................27
36. Growth and diversity................................................................................................................................................................27
37. Social media and serious gaming..............................................................................................................................................27
3
, CHAPTER 1: INFLUENCE: DEFINITION, HISTORY AND A
MODEL
1. Introduction
To advertise is to ‘call attention to’ or ‘to notify or warn’ people of something.it stems from the Latin ad vertere which means to
‘turn towards/to change’. While we probably can’t recall most messages we see per day we might be able to recognize them
when we see them again.
2. A brief history of influence research
Aristotle first identified main characteristics of persuasive messaging: source, recipient and content. This book uses Lasswell’s
model to elaborate on attitudes and attitude change
Attitudes
Attitude: an evaluative response – positive or negative – to a person, a situation, a product, an idea or an organization.
At first, the main emphasis of research into persuasion was on the linguistic aspects of a message, such as the form or meaning
of a text (i.e., when a message influences attitudes and behavior). That focus soon broadened considerably, shifting more and
more towards analysis of the process involved in persuasion (i.e., how a message influences attitudes and behavior).
Research into attitudes gave the knowledge that there is a difference between direct and indirect effects of communication (e.g.
you might be influenced now but in the long-term the effects fade). So, the process model of communication came to be:
attention understanding accepting retaining. The effectiveness of each step is important in deciding the effectiveness
of a message as a whole. Furthermore, if information already is in line with the beliefs of the receiver the message will be more
persuasive. If the source is considered reliable or trustworthy the message will also be more effective. All this information is
summarized in the following table summarizing the Yale model of persuasion as influenced by Hovland and Janis (1959):
4
, After this comes the inoculation theory which adds more steps: presentation attention comprehension yielding
retention behavior. Based on this Greenwald (1968) comes up with the cognitive response theory which further elaborates
that integration depends on existing beliefs and that new messages are coupled with existing attitudes.
Advertising and influence
In the field of marketing people also came up with models. One of the first is the AIDA model:
This model looks chronological but it doesn’t necessarily have to be. It mainly focuses on the relevant aspects of each step.
Important to note is that later an S for Satisfaction was added to ensure customer loyalty in the long run. Some flaws of the
model are that a) it assumes processing information is conscious and only relies on the central route and (b) it assumes the
receiver is passive and not an active participant of processing media.
Influence and ethics
One main concern is subliminal messaging which does not have scientific support and can therefore be disregarded. Another
concern, relevant to marketing, is that of advertising unhealthy or undesirable behavior.
5
Content
Chapter 1: Influence: definition, history and a model......................................................................................................................4
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
2. A brief history of influence research............................................................................................................................................4
Attitudes................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Advertising and influence......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Influence and ethics................................................................................................................................................................. 5
The model of this book............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Chapter 2: Attitudes and behaviour.................................................................................................................................................7
3. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
4. Attitudes, attitude formation and behavior..................................................................................................................................7
5. Reasoned and intuitive attitudes..................................................................................................................................................8
6. Measuring attitudes and behaviors..............................................................................................................................................9
Measuring reasoned attitudes and behavioral preferences.....................................................................................................9
Implicit attitude measures........................................................................................................................................................9
Measuring behavior............................................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3: Persuasion through argumentation..............................................................................................................................11
7. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................... 11
8. Argument and persuasion..........................................................................................................................................................11
Dual-process models and persuasion.....................................................................................................................................11
Figures of speech as persuasive tools in argumentation........................................................................................................12
9. Value-expectancy models and influence....................................................................................................................................13
Chapter 4: Cognitive heuristics.......................................................................................................................................................13
10. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................ 13
11. Cognitive heuristics in decision-making....................................................................................................................................14
The representative heuristic...................................................................................................................................................14
Availability Heuristic...............................................................................................................................................................14
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic......................................................................................................................................14
The affect heuristic................................................................................................................................................................. 14
More-is-better heuristic......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Chapter 5: Social Heuristics............................................................................................................................................................15
12. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
13. Types of social heuristics.......................................................................................................................................................... 15
1
, The authority heuristic...........................................................................................................................................................15
Likeability heuristic.................................................................................................................................................................15
Consistency heuristic.............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Reciprocity heuristic...............................................................................................................................................................16
Scarcity heuristic....................................................................................................................................................................17
Chapter 6: Emotions and influence................................................................................................................................................17
14. Mood and influence.................................................................................................................................................................17
15. From general mood to specific emotions.................................................................................................................................17
16. Positive emotions.....................................................................................................................................................................18
Happiness............................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Contentment.......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Nostalgia................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Hope....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Pride....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Trust....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
17. Negative emotions...................................................................................................................................................................19
Fear........................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Worry..................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Regret..................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Guilt and shame..................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Contempt, disgust and anger.................................................................................................................................................19
Chapter 7: Punishment and reward...............................................................................................................................................20
18. Reward, punishment and the brain..........................................................................................................................................20
19. Reward vs. Punishment............................................................................................................................................................20
Punishment............................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Reward................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
20. Social punishment and reward.................................................................................................................................................21
Naming and shaming..............................................................................................................................................................21
Naming and praising...............................................................................................................................................................21
Chapter 8: Automatic influences on attitudes and behavior..........................................................................................................22
21. Influence: unconscious versus automatic.................................................................................................................................22
22. Evaluative conditioning............................................................................................................................................................ 22
23. Mere exposure effect............................................................................................................................................................... 22
24. Priming..................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Subliminal influence............................................................................................................................................................... 23
25. Contrast effect..........................................................................................................................................................................23
2
, 26. Smells and music...................................................................................................................................................................... 23
27. Physical environment...............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 9 : Social norms and social comparison............................................................................................................................24
28. The development of norms......................................................................................................................................................24
Descriptive norms.................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Injunctive norms..................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Descriptive and injunctive norms combined..........................................................................................................................25
29. Social norms as campaign tool.................................................................................................................................................25
30. The influence of role models....................................................................................................................................................25
Chapter 10: Modifications of complex behavior............................................................................................................................26
31. Intervention mapping............................................................................................................................................................... 26
32. Implementation intentions.......................................................................................................................................................26
33. Ability and behavioral change..................................................................................................................................................26
34. Tailored interventions.............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 11: Back to the future.......................................................................................................................................................27
35. Influence and ethics.................................................................................................................................................................27
36. Growth and diversity................................................................................................................................................................27
37. Social media and serious gaming..............................................................................................................................................27
3
, CHAPTER 1: INFLUENCE: DEFINITION, HISTORY AND A
MODEL
1. Introduction
To advertise is to ‘call attention to’ or ‘to notify or warn’ people of something.it stems from the Latin ad vertere which means to
‘turn towards/to change’. While we probably can’t recall most messages we see per day we might be able to recognize them
when we see them again.
2. A brief history of influence research
Aristotle first identified main characteristics of persuasive messaging: source, recipient and content. This book uses Lasswell’s
model to elaborate on attitudes and attitude change
Attitudes
Attitude: an evaluative response – positive or negative – to a person, a situation, a product, an idea or an organization.
At first, the main emphasis of research into persuasion was on the linguistic aspects of a message, such as the form or meaning
of a text (i.e., when a message influences attitudes and behavior). That focus soon broadened considerably, shifting more and
more towards analysis of the process involved in persuasion (i.e., how a message influences attitudes and behavior).
Research into attitudes gave the knowledge that there is a difference between direct and indirect effects of communication (e.g.
you might be influenced now but in the long-term the effects fade). So, the process model of communication came to be:
attention understanding accepting retaining. The effectiveness of each step is important in deciding the effectiveness
of a message as a whole. Furthermore, if information already is in line with the beliefs of the receiver the message will be more
persuasive. If the source is considered reliable or trustworthy the message will also be more effective. All this information is
summarized in the following table summarizing the Yale model of persuasion as influenced by Hovland and Janis (1959):
4
, After this comes the inoculation theory which adds more steps: presentation attention comprehension yielding
retention behavior. Based on this Greenwald (1968) comes up with the cognitive response theory which further elaborates
that integration depends on existing beliefs and that new messages are coupled with existing attitudes.
Advertising and influence
In the field of marketing people also came up with models. One of the first is the AIDA model:
This model looks chronological but it doesn’t necessarily have to be. It mainly focuses on the relevant aspects of each step.
Important to note is that later an S for Satisfaction was added to ensure customer loyalty in the long run. Some flaws of the
model are that a) it assumes processing information is conscious and only relies on the central route and (b) it assumes the
receiver is passive and not an active participant of processing media.
Influence and ethics
One main concern is subliminal messaging which does not have scientific support and can therefore be disregarded. Another
concern, relevant to marketing, is that of advertising unhealthy or undesirable behavior.
5
