Research Methodology Notes
Chapter 1: Introduction
The Empirical Cycle:
1. Observation
2. Theory (induction)
3. Prediction (deduction)
4. Testing
5. Evaluation
6. Observation
Chapter 2: Sources of Information
● Research is probabilistic: its findings are not expected to explain all cases all of the
time
● Availability heuristic: things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our
thinking
● Present/present bias: when testing relationships, we often fail to look for absences
and also it’s easier to notice what is present
● Confirmation bias: we only acknowledge things that confirm our ideas
● The bias blind spot: when we believe that we aren’t susceptible to biases, but other
people are
● Empirical journal articles report the results of an empirical research study for the
first time
○ Empirical articles contain detail about the study’s method, the statistical tests
used, and the results of the study
● Review journal articles provide a summary of all of the published studies that have
been done in one research area
, Chapter 3: Three claims, Four validities
● Conceptual variables: abstract concepts / the elements of a theory
○ Example: coffee consumption
● Operational variables: the specific manipulations in order to study the conceptual
variables
○ Example: how often do people drink coffee?
Three claims
1. Frequency claims
● Arguments about the level of a single, measured variable in a group of people
● Variables are always measured, not manipulated
2. Association claims
● A variable is likely to be associated with another variable
3. Causal claims
● State that one variable is responsible for changes in another variable
The Four Big Validities
● Construct validity: is the conceptual variable operationalized well?
● External validity: can the results be generalized to a more general population?
● Statistical validity: how well do the numbers support the claim?
● Internal validity: are there alternative explanations for the results?
3 criteria for causal claims
1. Covariance
● The results show that two variables are associated
2. Temporal precedence
● One variable comes first, then the other variable
3. Internal validity
● The study’s ability to eliminate alternative explanations for the association
, Chapter 4: Ethical Guidelines for Psychology Research
Laws that regulate the ethics of a study
● The Nuremberg Code
● The Declaration of Helsinki
3 main principles for research (Belmont Report)
1. Respect for people
● Informed consent
● Protection for disabled people
2. Beneficence
● Protect from harm
● Anonymity and confidentiality
3. Justice
● A fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in the research and
the people who benefit from it
APA ethical principles
1. Fidelity + responsibility
2. Integrity
Animal research
● Replacement
○ Are there alternatives to testing on animals?
● Refinement
○ Minimize animal distress
● Reduction
○ Prefer studies that request as few animals as possible
Chapter 1: Introduction
The Empirical Cycle:
1. Observation
2. Theory (induction)
3. Prediction (deduction)
4. Testing
5. Evaluation
6. Observation
Chapter 2: Sources of Information
● Research is probabilistic: its findings are not expected to explain all cases all of the
time
● Availability heuristic: things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our
thinking
● Present/present bias: when testing relationships, we often fail to look for absences
and also it’s easier to notice what is present
● Confirmation bias: we only acknowledge things that confirm our ideas
● The bias blind spot: when we believe that we aren’t susceptible to biases, but other
people are
● Empirical journal articles report the results of an empirical research study for the
first time
○ Empirical articles contain detail about the study’s method, the statistical tests
used, and the results of the study
● Review journal articles provide a summary of all of the published studies that have
been done in one research area
, Chapter 3: Three claims, Four validities
● Conceptual variables: abstract concepts / the elements of a theory
○ Example: coffee consumption
● Operational variables: the specific manipulations in order to study the conceptual
variables
○ Example: how often do people drink coffee?
Three claims
1. Frequency claims
● Arguments about the level of a single, measured variable in a group of people
● Variables are always measured, not manipulated
2. Association claims
● A variable is likely to be associated with another variable
3. Causal claims
● State that one variable is responsible for changes in another variable
The Four Big Validities
● Construct validity: is the conceptual variable operationalized well?
● External validity: can the results be generalized to a more general population?
● Statistical validity: how well do the numbers support the claim?
● Internal validity: are there alternative explanations for the results?
3 criteria for causal claims
1. Covariance
● The results show that two variables are associated
2. Temporal precedence
● One variable comes first, then the other variable
3. Internal validity
● The study’s ability to eliminate alternative explanations for the association
, Chapter 4: Ethical Guidelines for Psychology Research
Laws that regulate the ethics of a study
● The Nuremberg Code
● The Declaration of Helsinki
3 main principles for research (Belmont Report)
1. Respect for people
● Informed consent
● Protection for disabled people
2. Beneficence
● Protect from harm
● Anonymity and confidentiality
3. Justice
● A fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in the research and
the people who benefit from it
APA ethical principles
1. Fidelity + responsibility
2. Integrity
Animal research
● Replacement
○ Are there alternatives to testing on animals?
● Refinement
○ Minimize animal distress
● Reduction
○ Prefer studies that request as few animals as possible
