Origins of psychology
Introspection = the process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional
states as a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings, gaining
knowledge from self reflection, looking inwards to find answers
Empiricism = belief that we gain all our knowledge over time through our sensory experiences
Wilhelm Wundt
● First psychologist
● His lab was in Leipzig, Germany
● Studied only the aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled under experimental
conditions (e.g. study of reaction time and various aspects of sensation and perception)
● Aim was to study the structure of the human mind
● Thought that the best way to do this was to break down behaviours like, sensation and perception
into their basic elements, so his approach was referred to as structuralism and introspection was
his technique
● Realised that higher mental processes (e.g. language, learning and emotions) were unable to
study in a strict, controlled manner
Introspection (technique he used)
● The process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states as
a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings
● Gaining knowledge from self reflection, looking inwards to find answers
● Still used today in research methods (self reports - interviews and questionnaires)
His studies and findings:2
● Studied it by showing people an object and asking them to reflect on how they were perceiving it -
this info could then be used to gain insight into the nature of the mental processes involved in
perception and reaction time
● E.g. getting people to listen to sound or look at images and asked about the inner processes they
were experiencing
● Made it possible to compare different participants responses to the same stimuli, so establishing
theories about mental processes
Empiricism
● Belief that we gain all our knowledge over time through our sensory experiences
● Knowledge is gained through observation and experience (introspection)
2 assumptions of empiricism:
1. Determinism - behaviour is caused by cause and effect
2. Predictability - allows us to study and learn by conducting research, can predict behaviours
- Science should be self regulating (i.e constantly checking and testing theories - updating)
,Scientific method
● Refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable and the
formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
● Objectivity - no bias (bias cannot influence data and results)
● Control = validity
● Consistency = replicable (observations can be repeated by other researchers to determine
whether they get the same result, if not then the results are not reliable so are not true)
A03
1. Point: A strength of Wundt’s methods is that the idea of introspection is still used today (in the
form of self-reports)
Explanation: This shows the value of how he contributed to psychology as a science
Further explanation: However his methods, through attempting to be scientific, were not easily replicable
due to the inconsistent control
Link: This suggests some limitations of Wundt's contribution to psychology as a science
2. Point: A problem with using scientific methods is that it isn’t always appropriate
Evidence: Some behaviours to be to be researched would have value or detail if simplified to the
controlled experimental condition
Link: This suggests, though there is value to it in some cases, it shouldn’t be used in every occasion
without consideration
3. Point: A benefit of the scientific approach is the ability to conclude causality on theories
Explanation: This means testing hypotheses through experiments can inform us of the causes of
behaviour
Further explanation: Additionally, science is self-connecting which means knowledge is being updated
Link: This therefore shows a strength of relying on the scientific method when conducting research
Behavioural approach
Classical conditioning = learning through association (Ivan Pavlov)
, Operant conditioning = learning by consequence (Skinner)
Schema = “packet of information” or cognitive framework that helps us organise and interpret information,
they are based on our previous experience
Reinforcement = something in the environment that strengthens a particular behavior, so makes it more
likely to recur
Positive reinforcement = when a behaviour produces a consequence that is pleasant
Negative reinforcement = remove a bad thing (e.g. an alarm)
Punishment = when a behaviour is followed by a consequence that is unpleasant or undesirable
Pavlov
● Showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if the bell was repeated
and presented at the same time that they were given food
● Repeated the ringing of the bell before they brought out the food and over time the dogs realised
that the bell meant food
Before:
- Food was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- Salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR)
- Bell was the neutral stimulus (no response – no salivation)
During:
- Bell + food was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- Salivation was the unconditioned response (UCR)
- The UCS paired with the neutral stimulus produces the UCR
After:
- Bell had become the conditioned stimulus (CS)
- Salivation had become the conditioned response (CR)
- Dogs had learnt to associate the bell with the food
- Salivation was triggered by the sound of the bell
- The CS became the CR
Skinner
● Argued that learning is an active process through consequences
● If good consequences, then they repeat the behavior but if bad consequences then they do not
repeat the behavior
● Positive reinforcement = is receiving a reward
● Negative reinforcement = occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant
happening (e.g. in one of Skinner’s experiments a rat had to press a lever to stop receiving an
electric shock)
● Punishment = an unpleasant consequence (e.g. being grounded for not doing your psychology
homework)
● The behaviours produce consequences (+ve or -ve)
Introspection = the process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional
states as a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings, gaining
knowledge from self reflection, looking inwards to find answers
Empiricism = belief that we gain all our knowledge over time through our sensory experiences
Wilhelm Wundt
● First psychologist
● His lab was in Leipzig, Germany
● Studied only the aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled under experimental
conditions (e.g. study of reaction time and various aspects of sensation and perception)
● Aim was to study the structure of the human mind
● Thought that the best way to do this was to break down behaviours like, sensation and perception
into their basic elements, so his approach was referred to as structuralism and introspection was
his technique
● Realised that higher mental processes (e.g. language, learning and emotions) were unable to
study in a strict, controlled manner
Introspection (technique he used)
● The process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states as
a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings
● Gaining knowledge from self reflection, looking inwards to find answers
● Still used today in research methods (self reports - interviews and questionnaires)
His studies and findings:2
● Studied it by showing people an object and asking them to reflect on how they were perceiving it -
this info could then be used to gain insight into the nature of the mental processes involved in
perception and reaction time
● E.g. getting people to listen to sound or look at images and asked about the inner processes they
were experiencing
● Made it possible to compare different participants responses to the same stimuli, so establishing
theories about mental processes
Empiricism
● Belief that we gain all our knowledge over time through our sensory experiences
● Knowledge is gained through observation and experience (introspection)
2 assumptions of empiricism:
1. Determinism - behaviour is caused by cause and effect
2. Predictability - allows us to study and learn by conducting research, can predict behaviours
- Science should be self regulating (i.e constantly checking and testing theories - updating)
,Scientific method
● Refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable and the
formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
● Objectivity - no bias (bias cannot influence data and results)
● Control = validity
● Consistency = replicable (observations can be repeated by other researchers to determine
whether they get the same result, if not then the results are not reliable so are not true)
A03
1. Point: A strength of Wundt’s methods is that the idea of introspection is still used today (in the
form of self-reports)
Explanation: This shows the value of how he contributed to psychology as a science
Further explanation: However his methods, through attempting to be scientific, were not easily replicable
due to the inconsistent control
Link: This suggests some limitations of Wundt's contribution to psychology as a science
2. Point: A problem with using scientific methods is that it isn’t always appropriate
Evidence: Some behaviours to be to be researched would have value or detail if simplified to the
controlled experimental condition
Link: This suggests, though there is value to it in some cases, it shouldn’t be used in every occasion
without consideration
3. Point: A benefit of the scientific approach is the ability to conclude causality on theories
Explanation: This means testing hypotheses through experiments can inform us of the causes of
behaviour
Further explanation: Additionally, science is self-connecting which means knowledge is being updated
Link: This therefore shows a strength of relying on the scientific method when conducting research
Behavioural approach
Classical conditioning = learning through association (Ivan Pavlov)
, Operant conditioning = learning by consequence (Skinner)
Schema = “packet of information” or cognitive framework that helps us organise and interpret information,
they are based on our previous experience
Reinforcement = something in the environment that strengthens a particular behavior, so makes it more
likely to recur
Positive reinforcement = when a behaviour produces a consequence that is pleasant
Negative reinforcement = remove a bad thing (e.g. an alarm)
Punishment = when a behaviour is followed by a consequence that is unpleasant or undesirable
Pavlov
● Showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if the bell was repeated
and presented at the same time that they were given food
● Repeated the ringing of the bell before they brought out the food and over time the dogs realised
that the bell meant food
Before:
- Food was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- Salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR)
- Bell was the neutral stimulus (no response – no salivation)
During:
- Bell + food was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- Salivation was the unconditioned response (UCR)
- The UCS paired with the neutral stimulus produces the UCR
After:
- Bell had become the conditioned stimulus (CS)
- Salivation had become the conditioned response (CR)
- Dogs had learnt to associate the bell with the food
- Salivation was triggered by the sound of the bell
- The CS became the CR
Skinner
● Argued that learning is an active process through consequences
● If good consequences, then they repeat the behavior but if bad consequences then they do not
repeat the behavior
● Positive reinforcement = is receiving a reward
● Negative reinforcement = occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant
happening (e.g. in one of Skinner’s experiments a rat had to press a lever to stop receiving an
electric shock)
● Punishment = an unpleasant consequence (e.g. being grounded for not doing your psychology
homework)
● The behaviours produce consequences (+ve or -ve)
