Contemporary sociological theories
Hoorcollege 1
Theory = instrument to understand reality
Sociology = the systematic analysis of social phenomena
Social phenomena are not individual effects.
Where does social theory come from?
- from empirical observation (induction)
- from any part of social life ( not necessarily from a scientific activity), including everyday life, art
- common sense can be seen as a social theory about the world ( a very general, widespread and
often quite blunt theory)
- every social theory is in some way related to the socio-historical context in which it occurs
- theory is not above ongoing social and political developments/ struggles
Theory = a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something especially one based on
general principles independent of the things to be explained
Opinion = a view or judgement formed about something, not necessarily based on fact of knowledge
Fact= a thing that is indisputable the case
A theory is…
.. a (tentative) answer to an explanatory question (that is, an answer to a “Why?” question)
… a more or less coherent system of definitions and assumptions aimed at explaining some
aspects of reality.
Theories are tested by deriving hypotheses (implications from the assumptions)
A formal definition of a sociological theory
“a set of interrelated ideas that allows for the systematization of knowledge of the social
world, the explanation of that world, and predictions about the future of the social world”
Good theories
… are logically coherent
… explain a lot by assuming a little (parsimonious). Theories are supposed to make the world
simpler for us to understand
… are empirically testable
… are supported by empirical tests
Paradigmata (Thomas Kuhn)
The Kuhn cycle:
Normal science -> model drift -> model crisis -> model revolution -> paradigm change
4 main paradigmata in sociology:
,1. (structural) functionalist paradigm
2. Conflict paradigm
3. Symbolic interactionists paradigm
4. Rational choice paradigm
Problems with paradigmata: sociology is part of society, and so is the sociologist. This determines
your view on society. There is no complete or complete or overarching picture of theory on how
society works. It is always restricted and selective
Theoretical tradition = family of theories with common assumptions
Theoretical tradition = theory -> does not focus on a specific explanatory problem
Division into traditions is more or less arbitrary: may specific theories combine elements from several
traditions
Three ways of thinking about theory
1. That which underpins research design – theory as paradigm
2. That which may inform our understanding of the phenomenon under investigation – theory
as a lens
3. That which may emerge from our study – theory as new knowledge
Ontology= philosophical assumptions about what constitutes social reality
epistemology= what we accept as valid evidence of that reality
methodology = the means by which we investigate that context
methods = the means by which we gather evidence
4 key paradigm questions
ontology: what do we believe exists
- fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the nature of the social world and it relationship to
individual social actors.
What constitutes reliable and valid knowledge (epistemology)
- causal relationships between observable phenomena
- interpretatations of meaning
How we produce reliable and valid knowledge (methodology)
- what strategies of in quiry are appropriate to our ontological/ epistemological position
- (decriptive/ confirmatory <-> explanatory/ exploratory)
How can we collect data to test our theories or describe social phenomena (methods)
- what data collection approaches/ tools are appropriate to the methodology
Theory as neutral -> truth can be found by systematic investigation
theory, for a change -> the powerful own the truth. Liberation via knowledge
theory as deconstruction -> there is no truth or objectivity. No liberation, but deconstruction to
critique claims of truth
Hoorcollege 2
the enlightenment:
central theme: reason could be used to solve all human problems.
,central elements:
- all forms of life are being studied as ‘systems, interrelated parts (change in one part has
consequences for the whole)
- rise of rationalism in social thought
basic values:
- freedom from arbitrary power
- freedom of speech
- freedom of association (political parties, trade unions)
- freedom of trade (against monopolies of British East India Company)
- freedom to realize one’s potential (universal rights for everyone, no privileges)
targets:
- traditional religious systems of belief
- traditional authorities
- speculative thinking (not empirically, or evidence-based)
key ideas:
- the ability to reason, is what makes humans unique
- reason can be used to solve problems and improve people’s lives
- reason can free people from ignorance, superstition, and unfair government
- the natural world can be governed by laws that can be discovered through reason
- like the naturel world, human behaviour is governed by natural laws
- governments should reflect natural laws and encourage education and debate
pioneers of forerunners
Thomas Hobbes:
- English thinker, wrote views of government in leviathan
- absolute monarchy -> best
- believed people needed government to impose order (because people are selfish and greedy)
(should exchange some freedoms for peace, safety, order)
- social contract between you and the rest of the citizens, rules of behaviour.
John Locke:
- English philosopher, believe all people born equal
- government should protect people’s natural right (monarchs not chosen by God, government by
consent, power limited by laws, ideas of foundation for modern democracy)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
- French philosopher, believe people are basically good
- believe society corrupted people
- wrote the social contract, contract between all members of society. “Man is born free but
everywhere is in chains”
- believed government should work for common good, not wealthy few
- individual should give up some freedoms for benefit of community
- despised inequality in society
- views inspired revolutionaries in years to come
, Montesquieu
- separation of powers
- best form of government -> divided power among branches of government
- separation of powers kept individuals or groups from abusing power
Powers divided into branches
1. Legislative
2. Executive
3. Judicial
- parliament made laws, king carried out laws, courts interpreted laws
- separation of power allowed each branch to check against power of others -> checks and balances
- concept later important structure of democratic governments
Adam smith:
- Scottish economist, used reason to analyse economic systems
- the wealth of nations advanced free market enterprise
- strong believer in laissez-faire economic, no government regulation
- believed economy would be stronger if market forces of supply and demand were allowed to work
freely
Counter enlightenment:
Key elements
Romanticism (conservative) -> reaction to French Revolution
-> anti-utopianism
-> importance of the irrational
-> rejection of abstractions
-> anti-individualism
-> importance of groups and sub units (people connect with society thru small groups -> influence on
Durkheim)
-> interdependence of social institutions (society as a social organism)
-> importance of basic needs (vs universal rights)
Main thinkers:
Immanuel Kant:
- the nature of knowledge (epistemology) and reality (ontology)
- position between realism and idealism
- each object in the world has two sides: Noumenal side and phenomenal side
- we can only know the world through our mind, the noumenal side is meaningless without our
interpretation
- “all human minds are alike, so we all perceive the same world
- critique: romanticism -> each culture is unique
George Friedrich Hegel:
- dialectics: “processes of movement and change’
- “social structures and the actions of individuals are dialectically intertwined”
- each has effect on the other, each could not exist without the other, each makes the other
Hoorcollege 1
Theory = instrument to understand reality
Sociology = the systematic analysis of social phenomena
Social phenomena are not individual effects.
Where does social theory come from?
- from empirical observation (induction)
- from any part of social life ( not necessarily from a scientific activity), including everyday life, art
- common sense can be seen as a social theory about the world ( a very general, widespread and
often quite blunt theory)
- every social theory is in some way related to the socio-historical context in which it occurs
- theory is not above ongoing social and political developments/ struggles
Theory = a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something especially one based on
general principles independent of the things to be explained
Opinion = a view or judgement formed about something, not necessarily based on fact of knowledge
Fact= a thing that is indisputable the case
A theory is…
.. a (tentative) answer to an explanatory question (that is, an answer to a “Why?” question)
… a more or less coherent system of definitions and assumptions aimed at explaining some
aspects of reality.
Theories are tested by deriving hypotheses (implications from the assumptions)
A formal definition of a sociological theory
“a set of interrelated ideas that allows for the systematization of knowledge of the social
world, the explanation of that world, and predictions about the future of the social world”
Good theories
… are logically coherent
… explain a lot by assuming a little (parsimonious). Theories are supposed to make the world
simpler for us to understand
… are empirically testable
… are supported by empirical tests
Paradigmata (Thomas Kuhn)
The Kuhn cycle:
Normal science -> model drift -> model crisis -> model revolution -> paradigm change
4 main paradigmata in sociology:
,1. (structural) functionalist paradigm
2. Conflict paradigm
3. Symbolic interactionists paradigm
4. Rational choice paradigm
Problems with paradigmata: sociology is part of society, and so is the sociologist. This determines
your view on society. There is no complete or complete or overarching picture of theory on how
society works. It is always restricted and selective
Theoretical tradition = family of theories with common assumptions
Theoretical tradition = theory -> does not focus on a specific explanatory problem
Division into traditions is more or less arbitrary: may specific theories combine elements from several
traditions
Three ways of thinking about theory
1. That which underpins research design – theory as paradigm
2. That which may inform our understanding of the phenomenon under investigation – theory
as a lens
3. That which may emerge from our study – theory as new knowledge
Ontology= philosophical assumptions about what constitutes social reality
epistemology= what we accept as valid evidence of that reality
methodology = the means by which we investigate that context
methods = the means by which we gather evidence
4 key paradigm questions
ontology: what do we believe exists
- fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the nature of the social world and it relationship to
individual social actors.
What constitutes reliable and valid knowledge (epistemology)
- causal relationships between observable phenomena
- interpretatations of meaning
How we produce reliable and valid knowledge (methodology)
- what strategies of in quiry are appropriate to our ontological/ epistemological position
- (decriptive/ confirmatory <-> explanatory/ exploratory)
How can we collect data to test our theories or describe social phenomena (methods)
- what data collection approaches/ tools are appropriate to the methodology
Theory as neutral -> truth can be found by systematic investigation
theory, for a change -> the powerful own the truth. Liberation via knowledge
theory as deconstruction -> there is no truth or objectivity. No liberation, but deconstruction to
critique claims of truth
Hoorcollege 2
the enlightenment:
central theme: reason could be used to solve all human problems.
,central elements:
- all forms of life are being studied as ‘systems, interrelated parts (change in one part has
consequences for the whole)
- rise of rationalism in social thought
basic values:
- freedom from arbitrary power
- freedom of speech
- freedom of association (political parties, trade unions)
- freedom of trade (against monopolies of British East India Company)
- freedom to realize one’s potential (universal rights for everyone, no privileges)
targets:
- traditional religious systems of belief
- traditional authorities
- speculative thinking (not empirically, or evidence-based)
key ideas:
- the ability to reason, is what makes humans unique
- reason can be used to solve problems and improve people’s lives
- reason can free people from ignorance, superstition, and unfair government
- the natural world can be governed by laws that can be discovered through reason
- like the naturel world, human behaviour is governed by natural laws
- governments should reflect natural laws and encourage education and debate
pioneers of forerunners
Thomas Hobbes:
- English thinker, wrote views of government in leviathan
- absolute monarchy -> best
- believed people needed government to impose order (because people are selfish and greedy)
(should exchange some freedoms for peace, safety, order)
- social contract between you and the rest of the citizens, rules of behaviour.
John Locke:
- English philosopher, believe all people born equal
- government should protect people’s natural right (monarchs not chosen by God, government by
consent, power limited by laws, ideas of foundation for modern democracy)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
- French philosopher, believe people are basically good
- believe society corrupted people
- wrote the social contract, contract between all members of society. “Man is born free but
everywhere is in chains”
- believed government should work for common good, not wealthy few
- individual should give up some freedoms for benefit of community
- despised inequality in society
- views inspired revolutionaries in years to come
, Montesquieu
- separation of powers
- best form of government -> divided power among branches of government
- separation of powers kept individuals or groups from abusing power
Powers divided into branches
1. Legislative
2. Executive
3. Judicial
- parliament made laws, king carried out laws, courts interpreted laws
- separation of power allowed each branch to check against power of others -> checks and balances
- concept later important structure of democratic governments
Adam smith:
- Scottish economist, used reason to analyse economic systems
- the wealth of nations advanced free market enterprise
- strong believer in laissez-faire economic, no government regulation
- believed economy would be stronger if market forces of supply and demand were allowed to work
freely
Counter enlightenment:
Key elements
Romanticism (conservative) -> reaction to French Revolution
-> anti-utopianism
-> importance of the irrational
-> rejection of abstractions
-> anti-individualism
-> importance of groups and sub units (people connect with society thru small groups -> influence on
Durkheim)
-> interdependence of social institutions (society as a social organism)
-> importance of basic needs (vs universal rights)
Main thinkers:
Immanuel Kant:
- the nature of knowledge (epistemology) and reality (ontology)
- position between realism and idealism
- each object in the world has two sides: Noumenal side and phenomenal side
- we can only know the world through our mind, the noumenal side is meaningless without our
interpretation
- “all human minds are alike, so we all perceive the same world
- critique: romanticism -> each culture is unique
George Friedrich Hegel:
- dialectics: “processes of movement and change’
- “social structures and the actions of individuals are dialectically intertwined”
- each has effect on the other, each could not exist without the other, each makes the other
